1. Critical Realism: English critical realism of the 19^th century flourished in the forties and in the early fifties. It found its expression in the form of novel. The English critical realists of the 19^th century not only gave a satirical portrayal of the bourgeois and all the ruling classes, but also showed profound sympathy for the common people. The greatest English realist of the time was Charles Dickens.

2. Epistolary Novel: A type of novel in which the narrative is carried on by means of series of letters. Samuel Richardson’s Pamela (1740) and Clarissa Harlowe (1748) are among the best known epistolary novels. It can be classified into two kinds: the monologue epistolary novel and the dialogue epistolary novel.

3. The Lake Poets: The romantic poets of the older generation including William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge and Robert Southey are also called Lakers or Lake Poets in English literature because they lived for a time in the Lake District in the north-western part of England and they often described the beautiful scenes and the country people of that area.

4. Ballads: The narrative folk song that tells a story, which originates and is communicated orally mainly among illiterates, usually in 4-line stanzas, with the second and fourth lines rhymed.

5. Pre-Romanticism: In the latter half of the 18^th century, a new literary movement arose in Europe, called the Romantic Revival. It was marked by a strong protest against the bondage of Classicism, by a recognition of the claims of passion and emotion, and by a renewed interest in medieval literature. In England, this movement showed itself in the trend of Pre-Romanticism in poetry, which was ushered by Percy, Macpherson and Chatterton, and represented by Blake and Burns.

6. Soliloquy: A dramatic convention by means of which a character, alone on stage, utters his or her thoughts aloud. Playwrights use soliloquies as a convenient way to inform the audience about a character’s motivations and state of mind.

7. Humanism: a cultural and intellectual movement of the Renaissance that emphasized secular (worldly) concerns as a result of the rediscovery and study of the literature, art, and civilization of the ancient Greece and Rome. Showing interest in human life, human activities and gave expression to the new feeling of admiration for human beauty, activities and hum, and human achievement.

8. Renaissance: Renaissance is the ‘rebirth’ of literature, art and learning that progressively transformed European culture from the mid-14th century in Italy to the mid-17th century in England, strongly influenced by the rediscovery of classical Greek and Latin literature, and accelerated by the development of printing. The Renaissance is commonly held to mark the close of the middle Ages and the beginning of the modern Western world. In literary terms, it is marked by a new self-confidence in vernacular literatures, a flourishing of lyric poetry, and a revival of such classical forms as epic and pastoral literature.

English Literature in the Seventeenth Century

1 Social Background:

 The English Bourgeois Revolution and Restoration

1)      The weakening of the tie between monarchy and bourgeois:

2)      The Clashes between the King and Parliament:

3)       The outburst of the English Revolution:

4)       The split within the revolutionary camp:

5)      The bourgeois dictatorship and the Restoration: 

Ⅱ. The English Revolution and Puritanism

The English revolution was carried out under a religious cloak. So, English revolution also called the Puritan revolution. The Puritan Movement aimed to make man honest and to make man free.

Puritanism was the religious doctrine of the revolutionary bourgeoisie during this period. It preached thrift, sobriety, hard work, but with very little extravagant enjoyment of the fruits of labor. Worldly pleasures were condemned as harmful. So in the triumph of Puritanism under Cromwell, severe laws were passed, many simple pleasures were forbidden and an austere standard of living was forced upon an unwilling people. The London theaters were closed in 1642.

The whole spirit of the movement: fighting for liberty and justice，overthrowing despotism and making men’s life and property safe from the tyranny of rulers.

Ⅲ. Literature of the 17^th century

English literature of the revolution and restoration was very much concerned with the tremendous social upheavals of the time.

1. Literature of the Revolution Period

A. general characteristics

1) The Revolution Period was one of confusion in literature due to the breaking up of the old ideals. The Puritans believed in simplicity of life. They disapproved of the sonnets and the love poetry written in the previous period. Literature was as divide din spirit as were the struggling parties.

2) Literature in the Puritan Age expressed age and sadness. Even its brightest hours were followed by gloom and pessimism.

3) Romantic ardor can not be found in literature of the Puritan period.

4) John Milton, whose work would glorify any age and people, and in his work the indomitable revolutionary spirit found its noblest expression. For this reason, this period is also called Age of Milton．

5) The main literary form of the period was poetry．Besides Milton, there were two other groups of poets, the Metaphysical Poets and the Cavalier Poets.

B. Metaphysical Poets

The Metaphysical Poets appeared in England at about the beginning of the 17th century. They sought to shatter myths and replace them with new philosophies, new sciences, new world and new poetry. With a rebellious spirit, they favored in poetry a more colloquial language, a single-minded working of one theme. Besides, they tended to logically reason the things, esp. emotions, psychologically analyze the emotions of love and religion, love the novelty and the shocking, use the metaphysical conceits, and ignore the conventional devices. The works of these poets are characterized by mysticism in content and fantasticality in form.

John Donne (1573-1631) is the founder of the Metaphysical School. Donne is famous for his frankness, penetrating realism and cynicism. He emphasizes his thought by fantastic metaphors and extravagant hyperboles. John Donne’s masterpiece is Songs and Sonnets《歌曲与十四行诗》, among which The Sun Rising and The Flea are the two most famous poems.

George Herbert (1593-1633) is "the saint of the Metaphysical School"(玄学派诗圣). His chief work is a collection called The Temple《神殿》, which includes his 160 short poems.

C. Cavalier Poets

Another school of poetry prevailing in the period' were the Cavalier Poets. Most of these poets were courtiers and soldiers. They sided with the king to fight against the revolution. The representatives of this school are Sir John Suckling (1609-1642), Richard Lovelace (1618-1657), Thomas Carew (1595-1639), and Robert Herrick (1591-1674).

John Milton (1608-1674)

I. Life and literary career

Milton was born in London in1608. His education began at St. Paul's school, then he went on to distinguish himself at Cambridge University, where he graduated B. A. in 1629, and M. A. in 1632. His first work is an ode On the Morning of Christ’s Nativity（《基督诞生晨颂》，1629）

After leaving Cambridge, he retired for nearly six years to his father's country house in Horton, where he devoted his time chiefly to further mastery of the whole range of languages, literature, science, theology, and music. During this period, Milton wrote L’Allegro (《快乐的人》，1632), Il Penseroso (《沉思的人》，1632), Lycidas (《利西达斯》，1638), Comus (《科玛斯》，1634).

In 1638 he left England to complete his education with two years of travel in Europe, France, Switzerland and Italy. When he returned home in 1639, England was on the verge of a civil war. He soon plunged himself into the struggle and gave all his energies to the writing of pamphlets dedicated to the people’s liberty.

Milton was married to Mary Powell in June 1642, but the marriage proved to an unhappy one. So for several years Milton issued pamphlets in which he argued that all Englishmen should have the right to get a divorce. In 1644, he published Areopagitica《论出版自由》, as a declaration of people’s freedom from press.

After the Revolution succeeded, Milton became Latin Secretary to the council of Foreign Affairs in 1649. He wrote a number of pamphlets defending the English revolution, such as Defence of the English People (《为英国人民辩护》，1651), and Second Defence of the English People (《为英国人民再辩护》，1654). Until the end of the Commonwealth, there were two leaders in England, Cromwell the man of action, and Milton the man of thought.

Milton went blind in 1652, doubtlessly due to the severe eyestrain brought on by ceaseless reading and Latin composition. With the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660, Milton not only was confronted, but also was imprisoned and threatened with execution. Through the intervention of some friends who carried some influence with the new royal government, Milton was let off with a fine and some loss of property. Shortly afterward, living in blindness and virtual seclusion from all but the members of his immediate family, Milton began his masterpiece Paradise Lost. Before his death Milton published two other works on a grand scale, Paradise Regained and Samson Agonistes. Both appeared in 1671; neither is as successful as Paradise Lost. Milton died in 1674.

II. Major Works:

Paradise Lost 《失乐园》，1665

Paradise Regained 《复乐园》，1671

Samson Agonistes 《力士参孙》，1671

1) Paradise Lost

Paradise Lost is Milton's masterpiece, and the greatest English epic. It is a long epic in 12 books, written in blank verse. The stories were taken from the Old Testament: the creation; the rebellion in Heaven of Satan and his fellow-angels; their defeat and expulsion from Heaven; the creation of the earth and of Adam and Eve; the fallen angels in hell plotting against God; Satan's temptation of Eve; the departure of Adam and Eve from Eden; and the possible salvation.

A. The Story

B. Theme and Characterization

The poem, on the surface, was "to justify the ways of God to man", i. e. to preach submission to the Almighty. But under the surface, the main idea of the poem is the heroic revolt against God's authority.

In the poem God is no better than a selfish despot. It has been noted by many critics that the picture of God surrounded by his angels resembles the court of an absolute monarch. While the rebel Satan who rises against God and, though defeated, still seeks for revenge. Satan and his followers who freely discuss all issues in council bear close resemblance to a republican Parliament. This epic expresses the reactionary forces of his time and shows passionate appeal for freedom.

The theme is also about the fall of Men: man’s disobedience and the loss of Paradise. But having done it, Adam and Eve get freedom. They embody Milton's belief in the powers of man. Their craving for knowledge denied them by God, as Milton stresses, adds a particular significance to their character. It is this longing for knowledge that opens before mankind a wide road to an intelligent and active life.

What makes Paradise Lost a powerful poem is precisely the way in which the Biblical past is pulled into the present in an intriguing way. Running through the poem are the key political questions of freedom and choice. From the perspective of Satan and his followers, rebellion against God was inevitable. The revolt may have failed, but it has left them their freedom. The final image of the poem is profoundly forward-looking, an image of gain through loss. As Adam and Eve go hand in hand out of Eden, the loss of Paradise is seen as the gain of a future for humanity on earth.

The Image of Satan

The finest thing in Paradise Lost is the description of hell, and Satan is the real hero of the poem. As a conquered and banished giant, he remains obeyed and admired by those who follow him down to hell. It is always from him that deep counsels, unlooked-for resources and courageous deeds proceed. It is he who, passing through the guarded gates of hell and boundless chaos, amid so many dangers, and overcoming so many obstacles, makes man revolt against God. Though defeated, he prevails, since he has won from God the third part of his angels, and almost all the sons of Adam. Though feebler, he remains superior in nobility, since he prefers independence to happy servility, and welcomes his defeat and his torments as a glory, a liberty and a joy. To Milton, the proud and somber Satan represented the spirit of rebellion against an unjust authority. By using Satan as his mouthpiece, Milton is uttering his intense hatred of tyranny in the capacity of the Revolutionary.

Main Characters:

Satan --Head of the rebellious angels who have just fallen from Heaven. As the poem’s antagonist, Satan is the originator of sin—the first to be ungrateful for God the Father’s blessings. He embarks on a mission to Earth that eventually leads to the fall of Adam and Eve, but also worsens his eternal punishment. His character changes through-out the poem. Satan often appears to speak rationally and persuasively, but later in the poem we see the inconsistency and irrationality of his thoughts. He can assume any form, adopting both glorious and humble shapes.

Adam --The first human, the father of our race, and, along with his wife Eve, the caretaker of the Garden of Eden. Adam is grateful and obedient to God, but falls from grace when Eve convinces him to join her in the sin of eating from the Tree of Knowledge.

Eve --The first woman and the mother of mankind. Eve was made from a rib taken from Adam’s side. Because she was made from Adam and for Adam, she is subservient to him. She is also weaker than Adam, so Satan focuses his powers of temptation on her. He succeeds in getting her to eat the fruit of the forbidden tree despite God’s command.

God the Father --One part of the Christian Trinity. God the Father creates the world by means of God the Son, creating Adam and Eve last. He foresees the fall of mankind through them. He does not prevent their fall, in order to preserve their free will, but he does allow his Son to atone for their sins.

God the Son - -Jesus Christ, the second part of the Trinity. He delivers the fatal blow to Satan’s forces, sending them down into Hell, before the creation of Earth. When the fall of man is predicted, He offers himself as a sacrifice to pay for the sins of mankind, so that God the Father can be both just and merciful.

2) Paradise Regained

It explores the theme of temptation and fall and shows how humankind, in the person of Christ, withstands the tempter and is established once more in the divine favor.

3) Samson Agonistes

Samson Agonistes is a poetical drama modeled on the Greek tragedy. The story was taken from the Old Testament. Samson was an athlete of the Israelites. He stood as their champion, fighting for the freedom of his country. But he was betrayed by his wife and blinded by his enemies the Philistines. One day he was summoned to provide amusement for his enemies by feats of strength in a temple. There he wreaked his vengeance upon his enemies by pulling down the temple upon them and upon himself in a common ruin.

In this poetical drama, Milton is telling us his own story. Like Samson, he has been betrayed by his wife. He has suffered from blindness and been scorned by his enemies, and yet he has struggled heroically against his enemies. So the whole poem strongly suggests Milton's passionate longing that he too could bring destruction down upon the enemy at the cost of his own life. Samson is Milton.

4) Features of Milton's Poetry or Milton’s contribution

A. Milton is a great revolutionary poet of the 17th century. He is also an outstanding political pamphleteer of the Revolution period. He made a strong influence on the later progressive English poets.

B. Milton is a great stylist. His poetry has a grand style. That is because he made a life-long study of classical and Biblical literature.

C. Milton is a great master of blank verse. He is the glorious pioneer to introduce blank verse into non-dramatic poetry. He has used it as the main tool in his masterpiece Paradise Lost. His blank verse is rich in every poetic quality and never monotonous.

D. Milton wrote the greatest epic in English literature. He made a strong influence o later English poetry.

E. His poetry is noted for sublimity of thought and majesty of expression.

John Bunyan (1628-1688)

I. Life: refer to the text book on P.112-113

II. Works:

The Pilgrim’s Progress

The Pilgrim's Progress is a religious allegory, a narrative in which general concepts such as sin, despair, and faith are represented as people or as aspects of the natural world. The world’s literature has three great allegories: The Faerie Queene, Dante’s Divine Comedy and Pilgrim’s Progress. The first appeals to the poets, the second to the scholars, and the third to the common religious people of every age and condition.

The Pilgrim's Progress tells of a religious man’s search for salvation, and gives a truthful picture of English society. The basis of the allegorical narrative is the idea of a journey. The traveler's name is Christian, and he represents every Christian in human world. The figures and places Christian encounters on his journey stand for the various experiences every Christian must go through in the quest for salvation.

The whole book falls into two parts. Part 1 tells of the religious conversion of Christian and his religious life in this world. Part 2 describes the subsequent conversion of his wife and their children. Part One mainly describes his pilgrimage through the Slough of Despond, Vanity Fair, Doubting Castle, the Valley of Humiliation, and the Valley of the Shadow of Death. On the way he overcomes many obstacles and encounters various allegorical personages, such as Mr. Worldly Wiseman, Faithful, Hopeful, Giant Despair, the foul fiend Apollyon and some others. Finally he accomplishes his journey and arrives at the Celestial City. The “pioneer pilgrims” --- Christian and his associates --- belong to the Puritan sect, who were undergoing persecution in the reign of CharlesⅡ, especially during the earlier years of Restoration.

Though an allegory, its characters impress the reader like real persons. The places are English scenes and the conversations that enliven his narratives vividly repeat the language of his time.

Bunyan’s prose is noted for his simple, biblical style. He uses idiomatic expressions naturally. His biblical language enables him to narrate stories and reveal his ideas in a direct way.

The secret of the success of The Pilgrim’s Progress is probably simple. Its predominant metaphor --- life as a journey --- is simple and familiar. Throughout the allegory a spiritual significance is added to the commonplace details.

One of the most remarkable passages is that in which Vanity Fair and the persecution of Christian and his friend Faithful are described. Christian, the hero, and his companion, Faithful, are passing through a town called Vanity during the season of the local fair. On the Vanity Fair, honors, titles, kingdoms, lusts, pleasures and lives can be sold or bought, and cheating, roguery, murder and adultery are normal phenomena.

Bunyan cherished a deeply hatred of both the king and his government. This section gives the bitterest satire, which is invariably directed at the ruling class. In the descriptions of the Vanity Fair, Bunyan not only gives us a symbolic picture of London at the time of the Restoration but of the whole bourgeois society.

2. Literature of the Restoration

It is customary to date the beginning of a new literary period with the Restoration in 1660, when a country was weary of civil war and Puritan dictatorship brought back the Stuart heir, King Charles II, from his exile in France. It was a time when people sought to establish society and the art on a firm basis, and a time when dislike of change became a guiding principle, so that there was a deliberate attempt to keep things the way they were, and political life was dominant by the desire to assure stability.

Restoration literature is deeply influenced by French classical taste. It is a period of French influence.

A. general characteristics

1. The tendency to vulgar realism in the drama. Restoration writers sought to paint realistic pictures of a corrupt society.

2. A general formalism. They produced coarse, low plays without interest or moral significance.

3. The development of a simpler and more direct prose style.

4. The prevalence of the heroic couplet (two iambic pentameter lines which rime together) in poetry.

B. John Dryden (1631-1700)

1 Life:  Dryden is the most notable representative of English classicism in the Restoration period. He is the greatest poet between Milton and Pope. His works, which consists of his poems, his plays and his critical essays, reflect both good and evil tendencies of his age. In English literature, the Restoration period is traditionally called the “Age of Dryden”.

2 Works:

His plays: Dryden wrote 27plays, but most of them are affected by the immorality of the stage. The most famous one is All for Love, a tragedy dealing with the same story as Shakespeare’s Antony and Cleopatra.

His poetry: Dryden was a poet of intellect, not of emotion. His controversial and satirical poems were on a higher plane. His satire was cutting and revengeful, rather than witty. The best known and a masterpiece of the kind is Absalom and Achitophel. This poem is a powerful political satire used by Dryden to ridicule and attack the whigs, and to revenge himself upon his enemies.

His prose and Criticism:

   As a prose writer, Dryden had a marked influence on English literature in shortening his sentence and especially in writing naturally. He cared little for style and tried to state his critical ability, and became the foremost critic of his age. His most famous prose composition is An Essay of Dramatic Poesy, which established his position as the leading critic of the day.

Dryden’s influence on English literature:

   Following the standards of classicism, Dryden established the heroic couplet as one of the principle English verse form, clarified English prose and made it concise and flexible and raised English literary criticism to a new level. Dryden was the forerunner of the English classical school of literature in the next century.

   His influence on English literature can be seen in three aspects:

1)      He established the heroic couplet as the fashion for satiric, didactic, and descriptive poetry;

2)      He developed a direct and concise prose style;

3)      He developed the art of literary criticism in his essays and in the numerous prefaces to his poems.

同许多民族一样，盎格鲁-撒克逊人(Anglo-Saxons)的诗歌也源于口头集体创作，反映了远古部落人民的生活以及对自然与社会现象的解释。在这些诗歌世世代代的流传过程中，逐渐出现了以诗歌创作、吟诵为职业的吟游诗人。他们在王室贵族的宴会厅上吟唱助兴，曾受到相当的厚遇。在他们的演唱中，民间故事和传说得以保存、增删和润饰。渐渐地有些故事有了写本，有的写本又被保存下来。我们只能从现存的抄本中窥见盎格鲁-撒克逊时期英国文学中第一部伟大的作品。
《贝奥武甫》(Beowulf)的故事是由盎格鲁-撒克逊人带到英国的，他们原来居住在欧洲大陆北部，所以其诗歌具有浓厚的北欧气息。这部口头流传的长篇叙事诗大约写成于公元8 世纪，此时正值中国的唐朝。现在的手抄本是在公元10 世纪写成的。
长达3000 余行的《贝奥武甫》讲述的是古代英雄与魔怪搏斗的传奇冒险故事。贝奥武甫是6世纪的一个历史人物，但在诗人们的笔下，他成了一位神话中的英雄人物。这位瑞典南部高特族(Goth)的年青贵族，闻知妖魔格兰代尔(Grendel)屡屡夜袭丹麦国王霍兹加(Hrothgar)的宴会厅，杀害并掳走醉卧酣睡的武士，便带14 名勇士渡海相助。霍兹加国王在“鹿厅”(Mead Hall, or Heorot)中款待客人们。当晚，贝奥武甫与同伴们留宿屡遭血劫的“鹿厅”，格兰代尔闯入攫食武士，贝奥武甫与格兰代尔一场恶斗，以超人的臂力战胜了妖魔，并扯断了他的一只胳膊，负了致命伤的格兰代尔逃走。贝奥武甫的功绩得到称颂，国王酬以厚礼。但是格兰代尔的母亲为儿子报仇，再次来袭，抓走了国王的亲信爱斯舍尔。贝奥武甫追踪到潭内洞穴，用洞中的魔剑砍杀了母怪，又取下格兰代尔的首级归来。贝奥武甫青年时期的功绩构成了长诗的第一部分。
诗的第二部分描写老年贝奥武甫的事迹。他从丹麦凯旋回国后被立为王储，在国王去世后成为高特人的统治者，清明治理国家50 年。当他年老时，有一条火龙因为看守的宝物被盗而发怒，喷火焚烧，祸害乡里。年迈的贝尔武甫为解救人民，披甲执盾，率臣卜前去斩杀毒龙。他在年轻勇敢的侄儿威格拉夫(Wiglaf)的帮助下，杀死了凶猛的火龙，自己也身负重伤死去。人民在哀悼中为他举行了火葬。
《贝奥武甫》中出现或提起的许多人物来自历史上的真实人物，如丹麦的霍兹加王和高特族的希格拉克王都实有其人。而在对贝奥武甫的描写上，除了他是希格拉克王的外甥和继承人外，没有保留其他历史事实，把历史人物和神话英雄融合了。英国人的先租来自北欧，在那里他们背靠森林、面临大海，时时会遇到来自自然的未曾意料和难以抵御的危险。他们在贝奥武甫杀妖斩龙的故事里，表现他们在孔武有力的首领的领导下与自然界敌对力量的搏斗，诉说这种搏斗的艰辛和对胜利的希冀。
长诗主要反映的是异教(pagan)的氏族社会。在氏族社会里，个人与氏族或部落的关系非常密切，人们面临生存斗争的困难，需要集体的力量，氏族的庇护。这种强烈的集体感使他们把保护亲人和族人作为个人重要的责任。贝奥武甫把保护人民作为自己义不容辞的责任，不惜自我牺牲。他体恤民情、勇敢强壮，是人们理想的英雄。盎格鲁-撒克逊人信仰多神教，他们以泛灵论的认识方法和比拟类推的思维方法，通过想象去解释各种自然现象和社会现象。在《贝奥武甫》中经常提到命运，把她作为决定性因素。但是，作为在向封建时代过渡时期的英国写成的诗篇，《贝奥武甫》也反映了七八世纪英国的风貌，有许多封建因素和基督教色彩。在诗中宫廷生活图景中，我们可以看到封建时代推崇的封建等级观念、道德规范已经建立。国王领导和保护领主，领主臣属们则感念主恩、忠诚国王，勇敢无畏。贝奥武甫永斗火龙时，卫士们的退缩受到指责，威格拉夫的舍命相救得到称颂。诗中对血族仇杀、僭夺尊位等行为进行了谴责。基督教影响也渗入了诗中。歌者有时在叙述中插话，指出上帝的万能力量，哀叹异教徒不能见上帝那种不可见力量的不幸。妖魔格兰代尔被称为受上帝惩罚的该隐的后裔。《贝奥武甫》反映了氏族社会中早期封建社会数百年中的生活风习，兼有氏族时期英雄主义和封建时期的理想，混合了异教和基督教精神。
《贝奥武甫》也代表着古英语诗的艺术特色和成就。古英语与现代英语相当不同，现代英文读者读起来非常困难。它有高度的屈折变化形式。像近代德文那样，它的意义不取决于词的位置而是词尾的变化。古英语中有很多同义词，常用“隐喻复合字”(kenning)，如把海称为“鲸鱼之路”(whale-road)、把王称为“赐指环者”(ring-giver)。《贝奥武甫》中便大量使用了这种用法。诗人还常用一些不同的形容词来重复描写同一事物、现象，国王霍兹加被称为：“丹麦人的国王，贤明的统治者，善良的父亲，施予赏赐的思主”。
古英文诗的基本形式是头韵(alliteration)，即用来押韵的字都以同一辅音开始。每一行通常有四个重读音节，每行中间有一个停顿。通常头三个重读音节，更多的是头两个重读音节，都用头韵。《贝奥武甫》便是如此。我们读到这样的诗行：
Steap seanlitho - Stige nearwe（陡峭的石级 - 狭窄的小路）
或是：
Flod under foldan - Nis thaet feor heonon（地下的洪流 - 离此处不远）
在宴会厅里，歌者随着竖琴的拔弦声，朗诵着这短促而显单调的音节，歌颂英勇豪迈的祖先。
《贝奥武甫》反映了盎格鲁-撒克逊时代英国民族的历史和思想情感，具有史诗的广阔和庄严气概，被看作是英国人民的民族史诗。

20th-Century

English Literature

【背景介绍】

与19世纪相比，20世纪的英国文学有内倾、非理性和实验等特点。世纪之出，一些小说家继承了维多利亚时代的批判现实主义传统。哈代（Thomas Hardy，1840-12928）在他的“性格与环境小说”中表现了一种宿命论的悲观主义情调；高尔斯华绥（Galsworthy,1867-1933）在《福尔赛上世家》(Arnold Bennet,1867-1931)在《老妇谈》（The Old Wives‘Tale，1908）中描写了英国小镇的风土人情；毛姆（William  Somerset Maugham,1874-1965 ）在自传信小说《人性的枷锁》（Of Human Bondage，1915-1946）中探索人性的善与恶以及人生的意义；威尔斯（H G Wells，1866-1946）写了众多科幻小说，并预示了一幅幅恐怖的未来图景。但与此同时，另一些小说家开始对小说这一类作理论上思考，企图表现一种他们认为更真实的体验。詹姆士（Henry James，1843-1916）首先对小说做出系统得理论阐述，第一次提出小说中的叙述试点问题，并且在他自己的创作、实践最终表现对小说作为一种艺术的充分尊重和献身精神。康拉德（Joseph Conrad,1857-1924）和福特（Ford Madox ford,1873-1939）在各自的小说里，也像詹姆士一样，使用复杂的叙述结构和多重叙述视点，表现闻名于原始的对立，现代人的孤独与异化等主题，取得了令人瞩目的成就，称为20世代主义的先驱。

第一次世界大战过英国人的传统信念以毁灭性的打击，现代主义文学在一战后的精神废墟上挺拔而起。艾略特（T.S.Eliot，1888-1965） 的长诗（The Waste Land,1922）表现了一战后西方世界价值体系土崩瓦解的残酷现实，乔伊斯（James Joyce ,1882-1941） 在《尤利西斯》（Ulysses，1992）里展示了现代人在这样的世界里的精神漫游。这首长诗和这部小说成为20世纪世界文学中里程碑式的经典作品，吸引了广泛的兴趣和众多的研究。女作家伍尔夫（Virginia Woolf ,1892-1941 ）以独特的女性视角探查了在物欲横流的世界里女性的深层意识，运用意识流的手法创作出具与多重含义、高度象征的《黛洛维夫人》（MRS Dallowary,1925）和《到灯塔去》（To the lighthouse ,1927）.这些现代主义的作品呈现的不是理性的人和有序的世界。相反，是生活在封闭的自我意识中的扭曲物和变态的人。詹姆斯和康拉德等人所企图展示的更真实的世界在乔伊斯和伍尔夫等人的作品种实现了。这种把主观的意识或潜意识世界作为唯一值的表现得内容的倾向是20世纪英国文学的一个基本特点。劳伦斯（D·M·Lawrence,1885-1930）福斯特（E·M·Forster，1879-1970）是现代主义文学处于鼎盛时期的现代主义作家。他们在题材和技法上与康拉德和福特比相近。劳伦斯试图通过建立两性间亲密和和谐的关系改善人际关系，在此基础上建立健全合理的社会制度，福斯特侧重表现异质文化的冲突，探讨人与人之间的理解与互谅问题。

20世纪初一个不容忽视的文学现象是伴随着爱尔兰人民争取独立的斗争而出现的爱尔兰文艺复兴，在诗歌邻域叶致（W.B .Yeats，1865-193）及其人俱乐部为代表，在小说领域有乔治·穆尔（George Moore，1856-1950）和叶致，以及阿比剧团上演的许多优秀剧作。叶致的诗感情真挚且富含哲理，充满象征和神话地隐喻，它由于其“富于灵感的诗歌以精美的艺术形式展现了真格、民族的精神。”而获1923年度的文学诺贝尔文学奖。肖伯纳有自己套完整的喜剧理论，他将这套理论付 住创作实践，写出了既有浓重现实生活气息而又强烈喜剧色彩的大流量剧作，对中国的戏剧也产生了既积极的影响。他由于其“作品中所具有的理想主义和人道主义精神”获1925年的诺贝尔文学奖。

30年代世界性资本主义经济危机造成的大萧条促使人们又一次面对现实，现实主义文学传统再次成为文学创作的主流，整个英国文学出现了左转倾向，涌现出不少反映工人阶级和下层人民痛苦经历和斗争精神的作品。诗人奥登（W.H.Auden,1907～1973）、斯彭德（Stephen Spender,1909～ ）、麦克迪尔米德（Hugh MacDiarmid,1892～1978）迪伦·托马斯（Dylan Thomas,1914～1953），小说家衣修午德（Christopher Isherwood,1904～1986），戏剧家普瑞斯特利（J.B.Priestley,1894～1984）是这个时期这一倾向的代表人物。奥登无疑是继艾略特和叶芝之后又一重要诗人，是30年代新诗的代表人物，其诗作融汇了马克思主义和弗洛伊德主义，将堂皇和不雅的字眼并置，用现代口语的节奏，创造了新的意境。衣修午德的早期小说使用现代主义的创作方法，但自柏林小说集之后转向现实主义。奥登和衣修午德曾于1938年一同来到中国，对中国人民的抗日战争表示同情和支持。

另有一批“牛津才子”则继承了英国文学的讽刺传统，写出了意味隽永的作品。赫胥利（Aldoux Leonard Huxley,1894～1936）的《针锋相对》（Point Counter Point,1928）借用多声部音乐及对偶的方法，表现玩世不恭的中产阶级知识分子心灵的空虚。伊夫林·沃（Evelyn Waugh,1903～1966）的早期小说讽刺一战后那些“才华横溢的青年”在道德沦丧的年代过的那种花天酒地、醉生梦死的生活。亨利·格林（Henry Green,1905～1973）的早期小说反映工人阶级的生活，但他并没有对他们的境况表示同情，他后来的小说愈加难懂，属于“阳春白雪”“曲高和寡”的艺术家。与他相反，格雷厄姆·格林（Graham Greene,1904～1991）则以赢得读者为创作目的，写了不少他称之为“消遣品”的小说，但他探索人的自然天性与天主教义冲突的小说《权利与荣耀》（The Power and the Glory,1940），《问题的核心》（The Heart of the Matter,1948）等，使他在20世纪英国文学中占一突出地位。戈尔丁（William Golding,1911～1993）由于其寓意深刻的小说《蝇王》（Lord of the Flies,1954）而获诺贝尔文学奖。

第二次世界大战给英国人的精神震撼远不如一战强烈，但二战结束后工党执政推行的一系列改革措施并不成功，“福利国家”并没有给人民带来真正的福利，反而引起上层阶级的不满。另一方面，大英帝国的前殖民地纷纷独立，英国在国际事务中的地位一落千丈，在美苏的冷战中成为旁观者。这一切使英国人产生了浓重的悲观主义情绪，存在主义哲学大受欢迎。贝克特（Samuel Beckett,1906～1989）的小说与剧作以非现实的抽象手法表现人类生存的哲学困境，深刻地反映了当时人们的精神危机，以他为代表的荒诞戏剧是二战后的重要文学现象，《等待戈多》（Waiting for Godot,1955）已成为20世纪的经典之作，贝克特也因此获诺贝尔文学奖。奥威尔（George Orwell,1903～1950）以类似斯威夫特的辛辣讽刺笔法，写出了讽喻斯大林统治的政治小说《动物庄园》（Animal Farm,1945）和《1984》（Nineteen Eighty-Four,1949），为稍后不久出现的“愤怒的青年”（Angry Young Men）提供了尽情发泄怨恨的范例。

“愤怒的青年”指50年代中期一批出身下层阶级又受过高等教育的戏剧家和小说家，主要有奥斯本（John Osborne,1929～1994）、威斯克（Arnold Wesker,1932～ ）、艾米斯（Kinsley Amis,1922～）、韦恩（John Wain,1925～1994）、西利托（Alan Sillitoe,1928～ ）等。奥斯本的剧本《愤怒的回顾》（Look Back in Anger,1957），艾米斯的小说《幸运的吉姆》（Lucky Jim,1954），韦恩的《每况愈下》（Hurry or Down,1957），西利托的《长跑运动员的孤独》（The Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner,1959）等，表现出身低微的小人物对现存秩序的不满和反抗。这些作品的基调是现实主义的，常见的一个模式是出身低贱的青年男子与身份高贵的女人发生关系或结婚，玩弄她们的感情以泄阶级差异之愤，或借此跻身上层社会。而他们一旦达到目的，愤怒就随之消失。这批作者也像他们作品中的男主人公一样，获得声名后即与现存秩序握手言和，和平共处。

50年代的英国诗坛出现了运动派诗人，以拉金（Philip Arthur Larkin,1922～1985）、戴巍（Donald Alfred Davie,1922～ ）和冈恩（Thomson Gunn,1929～）为代表。这些诗人抛弃艾略特、庞德（Ezra Pound,1855～ ）的实验性诗品，反对现代主义诗的抽象晦涩，表现出回归传统的倾向。60年代的重要诗人是泰德·休斯（Ted Hughes,1930～ ），他以象征的方法歌颂原始的自然激情，立意新奇，结构严谨。另有一群“小组派”（The Group）诗人在50年代和60年代也十分活跃。

由于二战后存在主义哲学的影响和语言学研究的深入，出现了后现代主义文学。后现代主义文学作为后现代主义文化的一部分，是后工业社会的必然产物，他与现代主义文学有若干明显的不同。首先，后现代主义者认为“文学性”是人为的语言艺术的效果，不是一种先验的自然物。其次，后现代主义者否认作品存在客观的意义和价值，认为文本需要经过读者积极地参与阅读才获得意义，而不同的读者由于修养、爱好的差异对作品的理解就不会相同。后现代主义小说家默多克（Dame Murdoch,1919～ ）、斯巴克（Dame Spark,1918～）、莱辛（Doris Lessing,1919～ ）、福尔斯（John Fowles,1926～）等在自己的作品中揭示小说的虚构性，有时候甚至站出来直接与书中的人物交谈，与读者商量如何安排主人公的命运。

80年代和90年代英国文学的一个显著特点是回归传统。在经历了现代主义和后现代主义的种种试验之后，许多文学家注意到了为读者接受和喜爱的重要性，一种融合了现代主义和后现代主义精神和形式革新的新现实主义成为文学主流。巴恩斯（Julian Barnes,1964～ ）、波义德（William Boyd,1952～）和卡特（Angela Carter,1940～1992）等人是这种新潮流的主要代表人物。因写作《撒旦诗章》（The Satanic Verses,1988）而轰动一时的拉什迪（Salman Rushdie,1947～ ）也属于这一主潮。从目前的情况预测，这种现象将持续到21世纪。

English Literature of the Victorian Age (1832---1901)
　【背景介绍】

维多利亚时代是英国法展史上迅猛上升的时期。大英帝国的经济实力空前强大，势力范围迅速扩张。从殖民地掠夺的财富源源不断的流入英国，这似乎是现实世界理所当然的一部分，也许是许多维多利亚文学作品的背景。从《简·爱》(Jane  Eyre,1847)中女主人公意外地继承叔叔在马地拉给她流下的两万磅的遗产，到《远大前程》(Great  Expectations,1861)中失意后的匹普去埃及经营茶叶，到《名利场》(Vanity  Fair,1848)中的利蓓卡第一次施展身手就勾引从印度回国的财主乔瑟夫，人们不难看出，当时去殖民地捞钱是本国人民公认有效的“生财之道”。总之，这是一个充满了机会的时代，是一个能让人梦想“远大前程”的自信的年代。有的评论家，如斯坦纳(Steiner)，认为维多利亚的黄金时代像伊甸园，20世纪初的某些评论家则认为它像地狱。一般来说，为研究方便。维多利亚时期被文史家们分为三个阶段：维多利亚早期（1832~1848）、维多利亚中期（1848~1870）和维多利亚晚期（1970~1891）。

维多利亚早期也常被称为“多事之秋”(A Time of Troubles)。经济上的繁荣并不能阻止阶级矛盾的产生。就在新兴资产阶级奇迹般地暴富起来时，劳动者却不得不在残酷的压迫下过着穷困的生活。这一时期反抗压迫、争取民主选举权的运动蓬勃发展，在“宪章派”诗人的作品中得到忠实反映，最有代表性的有欧内斯特·琼斯(Ernest Jones,1819~1869)的《民主之歌》(The Songs of Democracy)。散文家托马斯·卡莱尔( Thomas Carlyle,1795~1881)的《法国大革命》(The  French Revolution,1837)和《过去与现在》(Past and Present,1843)，小说家伊丽莎白·盖斯凯尔(Elizabeth Gaskell,1810~1865)的《南方与北方》(North and South,1855)都在一定程度上揭示了金钱拜物教和市侩主义对人类道德的腐蚀，而狄更斯(Charles Dickens,1812~1870)在他早期的小说中更是不遗余力地反映了英国私有制社会的阴暗面。

维多利亚中期正好处于相对稳定的五六十年代，科学技术飞速发展，天文、地理和生物学等学科的新成果大大扩展了人类的眼界。这一时期被称为“经济繁荣和宗教分歧的时期（Economic  Prosperity  and  Religious  Controversy）”。达尔文的《物种起源》(The  Origin  of  Species)提出的进化论打破了上帝造物的唯心史观，给传统信仰以猛烈的冲击，人们不得不重新认识自己并再次定位；英国国教的势力衰减，新教派林立，福音派吸引了大批小生产者，知识界的所谓“牛津运动”(The  Oxford  Movement)或“高教派”(High  Church)也激烈展开，引起了强烈的反响甚至天主教势力的抬头。尽管勤奋和富有责任感仍为这一时期的主要价值取向，但全社会都在经历着一场信仰危机。许多文人学者对英国状况深感忧虑。狄更斯等一大批作家继续对维多利亚社会的弊端进行批判。最激烈的一位莫过于约翰·罗斯金(John  Ruskin,1819~1900)，他的《威尼斯之石》(The  Stones  of  Venice,1851~1853)预言了维多利亚工商业文明的毁灭，在《直到最后》(Unto  the  Last,1862)中对自由竟争的经济法则进行了无情攻击。较为客观的要数安索内·特罗洛普(Anthony  Trollope,1815~1882)的小说。教育家马修·阿诺德(Mathew  Arnold,1822~1888)在他的著名论著《文化与无政府》(Culture and Anarchy,1869)中，反对对物质的迷信，提倡文化和精神价值。他对英国社会状况的反思代表了一代有识之士面对新现实的焦虑和危机感。尽管这个时期存在许多问题，但它仍然是一个繁荣时期。因为它不仅创造了惊人的物质财富，同时也是各种文学样式，尤其是长篇小说发展的黄金时代。

维多利亚后期是大英帝国经理了由盛到衰过程的时期（Decay of Victorian Values）。一方面英国的霸主地位在受到美国和德国挑战的同时，英国加紧对殖民地的掠夺；另一方面，资本输出和海外扩张造成国内工农业的萧条和萎缩。70年代末80年代初的经济进一步加剧了贫富分化，而且维多利亚王朝推崇的社会道德规范和价值观念纷纷瓦解，到90年代几乎彻底崩溃。历史学家杨格曾概括说：“当我们注视80年代在新思潮和和旧观念” 旋涡中挣扎，试图寻找一个立足点的时候，我们就产生了茫然、不协调和无所适从的感觉。这种感觉不仅影响着人们的行为，也反映在当时的文学作品里。继斯威夫特之后最重要的讽刺家萨谬尔·巴特勒（Samuel Butlee,1835---1902）在死后发表的自传性小说《众生之道》（The Way of All Flesh）中尖锐讽刺了维多利亚式家庭生活，特别是那个自以为是的暴君似的父亲。如果说巴特勒的公开叛逆还不够成熟，那就留待唯美主义理论家和创始人瓦尔特 佩特（Walter Pater,1839---1894）和他的追随者们解决了。他们宣布父辈们的追求都是无意义的，“我们的问题没有答案，我们唯一可做的就是尽情享受美和短暂的时光。”90年代的艺术家们非常清醒地知道自己生活在一个伟大世纪的尽头，常常做出一副“世纪末”姿态。这一时期的诗歌和散文中表现出一种故做消沉、带者倦容的矫揉造作和对新的表现形式的追求，以吊起读者读腻了的胃口。乔治·摩尔（George Moore,1852---1933）和麦克斯·比尔博姆（Max Beerbohm,1872---1956）的散文以及恩斯特·道森的诗歌都反映出这些特点《大卫科波菲尔》(David Copperfeild)的主人公大卫曾自己总结：“我一直是十分认真的。”45年后，王尔德在《认真的重要》(The Importance of Being Ernest)中把 “认真”一词变成了一个双关语，一个颠覆了整个维多利亚早期价值观的玩笑。

    维多利亚时期文学的一个重要特点是“多样化”(variety)，即多种文学样式的繁荣。实际上，多样化体现了维多利亚作家的独立性和对文学经验的渴望。面对不断扩大的读者群，作家们几乎都是带着强烈的责任感进行写作，去把握和反映这个令人惊心动魄的时代。诗人们在继续使用一些传统的表现形式的同时，也在不断地实验新的、不同寻常的表现形式。最突出的莫过于叙事诗歌艺术的发展了。在小说有力的竞争面前，诗歌也开始寻求以韵文讲故事的新方法，追求史诗般的效果。像丁尼生（Alfred, Lord Tennyson,1809---1892）的《公主》（The Princess）《摩德》（Maud），勃郎宁的《圆与书》（The Ring and the Book）就是长篇叙事诗的杰出代表。获得“桂冠诗人”称号的丁尼生抒情、叙事技巧圆熟，勃郎宁尤其擅长用口语描绘人物的内心世界。这个时期还出现了倡导诗歌要重返意大利文艺复兴前的朴素纯真的“先拉菲尔派”诗人。其代表人物是罗塞蒂（Dante G. Rossetti,1828---1882）和威廉·莫里斯（William Morris）一些小说家兼诗人，如乔治·梅瑞狄斯（George Meredith）。和艾米莉·勃朗特（Emily Bronte,1818---1848）也尝试用诗歌表达小说中的故事和情感。的《现代爱情》（Modern Love）堪称描绘破碎的婚姻和情人间对立情绪的经典。

维多利亚时期的散文也成就斐然.仅一长串散文家的名字就令刮目相看：卡莱尔,纽曼(John Henry Cardinal Newman ,1801-1890),穆勒(John Start Mill,1806-1873),罗斯金，阿诺德,赫胥黎(Thomas Henry Huxley ,1825-1895)和佩特等等.他们主要的作品,如卡莱尔的《法国革命》,《过去与现在》,纽曼的《自辩》(Apologia pro Vita sua ,1864)穆勒的《论自由》(On Liberty,1859),罗斯金《威尼斯之石》,阿诺德的《文化与无政府》,《批评文集》(Esasays in Criticism,1865-1888),赫胥黎的《人在自然界的位置》（Evidenceas as to Man’s Place inn Nature ,1863）,佩特的《文艺复兴历史研究》(Studies IN The  History Renaissance ,1873)等，都应其独具的风格与魅力被载入英国文学史册。佩特在《风格》(Style)一文中指出散文是一门特殊的，恰好适合现代世界的艺术，它更适于表现现代生活“混乱的多样性和复杂性”。散文家对这一世界做出各种各样的反应，以不同风格在混乱中寻求秩序。卡莱尔在《论英雄》(On Heroes )中非常强调作家的责任，他的写作追求一种预言家的效果，而罗斯金更是事事都发表独到的见解，散文的内容涉及宗教，政治，经济，美学及现实生活的各个方面，说理方式也各不相同。穆勒和赫胥黎依靠思路清晰的逻辑推理，模仿18世纪散文家崇尚的理智，明快当文风，不带浪漫主义感情色彩。卡莱额外任何罗斯金则更靠近17世纪的文风，他们的所谓的“复调风格”对读者的耳朵和眼睛都有一种感染力，以生动的综合效果打动读者的心弦。

维多利亚时代是个几乎人人读小说的时代。由于受清教道德标准的约束，在维多利亚早期和中期的文学作品种人存在一定程度的内容禁忌。维多里亚早，中期的小说家们在“大众读者口味的期待下，在中产阶级道德的禁锢和出版形式（分期连载）的限制下创造了伟大的艺术，在精神上孕育了一代又一代的人们。”许多评论家认为，从奥斯丁理性的嘲讽道斯各种浪漫情怀的历史透视，从勃朗特姐妹奔放地想象到盖斯凯尔忠视朴素的描摹，从狄更斯的夸张与象征到萨克雷，艾略特的心理分析，总之，从狄更斯到埃略特的一代小说家谱写了英国小说史上最辉煌的一页。

换言之，自从狄更斯在维多利亚女王即位的同年发表第一部小说起，小说领域就新人辈出，争奇斗艳。19世纪40年代出现了勃朗特姐妹的《简·爱》和《呼啸山庄》(Wuthering  Heights,1847)50年代萨克雷以其《名利场》向魅力加经久不衰的狄更斯提出挑战，60年代特罗洛普成描绘维多利亚中期的社会现实的“肖像画大师”，70年代艾略特发表了他的传世之作《米德尔马奇》(Middlemarch,1872)80年代《唯我主义者》(The Egoist,1879)的作者梅瑞狄斯和巴特勒开始受到广泛关注，90年代哈代的一系列富有悲剧色彩的“威塞克斯”小说为维多利亚时期的小说划上一个圆满的句号。当然，梅瑞狄斯，哈代和巴特勒生活在心就相替的转折时期，他们的创作内容和风格上与维多利亚的小说家们相比，有很大不同，也有很大创新。梅瑞狄斯的小说以喜剧讽刺手法见长，是最先涉及婚外恋和妇女解放问题的作家之一。他还善于使用殿玉和隐喻，善于对于人物进行心理分析。巴特勒的小说偏重对维多利亚时期的宗教和家庭进行犀利的批评，他的《艾瑞璜》是一部讽刺社会传统的乌托邦小说，采取颠倒和夸张的讽刺手法，艾瑞璜这一名字就来自于“乌有乡”(NOWHERE)一次地倒写。哈代的小说带有浓厚的“乡土气息”和“宿命色彩”，实际上则表达了作家对工业化所造成喧嚣和丑恶的都市生活的一种反抗。他善于使用象征手法和心理描写，既继承了现实主义小说的优良传统，又表现了一个现代作家的艺术创新。他的小说揭露社会的伪善和不公，为小人物的灾难和不辛鸣冤，然而又透射出某种无奈和迷茫。

诚然，还有许多的小说家我们没有篇幅论及，但是，毋庸讳言，维多利亚时代是英国小说大发展期，文学地繁荣也折射出这个时代的人文精神，即人们对19世纪不断发展生活画面作出了热切的，积极的反应。维多利亚时期的戏剧，一般认为，求文学成就不能与同时期的诗歌，散文和修奥说相比。我们必须把剧本创作和剧院演出分开来看。维多利亚中时期伦敦的剧院多如牛毛，当时看戏就像我们现在看电视一样盛行，但是，在众多的剧作中几乎没有什么长久价值的作品，一般都流行于情节剧和传奇剧的形式，在观众中收获廉价的笑声和眼泪。直到90年代开始出现富有生气的剧作，即奥斯卡。伯纳德。萧(George Bernard shaw,1856-1950)杰作。

维多利亚时代文学艺术之所以伟大，首先在于它在于一个千变万化大的世界的艺术把握和真实反映。在这个时期先后出现的文学流派以琼斯为代表的“宪章派”诗歌，以狄更斯为邻袖的批评现实主义小说，以罗塞蒂位旗手的“先拉斐尔派”诗歌，以韦廉*莫里斯为代表的“乌托邦”小说，以史蒂文森为代表的新浪漫主义小说和以王尔德为首的“唯美主义小说，它们都在英国文学史上写下了浓彩重墨。

第七章 浪漫主义

本章的重点有：浪漫主义运动及其代表人物、作品。

浪漫主义指的是18世纪后半叶至19世纪上半叶盛行于欧洲的并表现于文学和艺术各个部门的一种主要的文艺思潮。实际上，浪漫主义文学的倾向在18世纪的感伤文学、德国的狂飙突进运动和英国前期浪漫主义文学中已有所表现。浪漫主义的兴起与这一时期的主流哲学德国古典主义哲学和空想社会主义思潮关系密切。在艺术手法上，浪漫主义的本质特点是它的主观性。另一个重要特点是对大自然的热爱和对工业文明的厌恶。浪漫主义作家还喜欢用夸张的手法，追求强烈的美丑对比和出奇制胜的艺术效果，他们重视中世纪民间文学，注意吸取、采用其体裁、语言、表达方式等。他们常用的文学体裁是诗歌。

浪漫主义文学在德国起步较早。其最初表现为歌德和席勒倡导的“狂飙突进”运动，后来又出现了以施雷戈尔兄弟（Schlegel brothers）、诺瓦利斯（Novalis）、蒂克（Tieck）为代表的“耶拿派”浪漫主义文学。后来，浪漫主义在德国日趋衰落，海涅在1836年发表的《论浪漫派》宣告了浪漫主义在德国文学中的统治地位的结束。

英国是当时欧洲工业最发达的国家，资本主义社会的矛盾和弊端也较早暴露出来，因而英国的浪漫主义运动有其自己的特点。其早期代表有彭斯和布莱克。后有“湖畔派”诗人华兹华斯、科尔律治和骚塞。继“湖畔派”之后，拜伦、雪莱、济慈三位浪漫派诗人在文坛上各领风骚。这一时期，瓦尔特 司格特在叙事文学方面做出了很大贡献，创始了欧洲历史小说。

法国浪漫主义文学形成于1820年左右。早期代表是夏多布里昂，主要作品有《阿拉达》和《勒内》。雨果是法国浪漫主义文学最重要的作家。他在1827年发表的《克伦威尔绪言》是法国浪漫主义运动的一篇重要宣言。其重要作品有《巴黎圣母院》和《悲惨世界》。乔治 桑是一位杰出的浪漫主义女作家，其代表作是《印第安娜》。

意大利浪漫主义文学的重要代表是小说家曼佐尼（Manzoni）和诗人莱奥帕尔迪（Leopardi）。曼佐尼的代表作是小说《约婚夫妇》（The Betrothed），莱奥帕尔迪的著名诗篇是《致希尔维亚》（To Sylvia）。

English Romanticism

    (1798~1832)

【背景介绍】

“浪漫主义”（romanticism）一词源于中世纪欧洲的“浪漫传奇”（romance），讲述的常常是英雄救美之类的故事。欧洲文学上的“浪漫主义时期”是指18世纪末、19世纪初流行全欧的反对理性、推崇想象的文学运动。

英国的“浪漫主义时期”通常从1798年华兹华斯（William  Wordsworth,1770~1850）和柯勒律治（Samuel  T.Coleridge,1772~1834）合著的《抒情歌谣集》（Lyrical  Ballads）发表算起，到1832年司各特（Sir  W.Scott,1771~1832）去世时止（这种划分并非是绝对的，只是为了讨论的方便）。之所以把这段时期笼统地称为英国的“浪漫主义文学时期”是因为这段时期的文学创作明显地显示了与18世纪前期（Age of Pope），以及中后期（Age of Johnson）古典主义文学创作的巨大差异：18世纪的作家强调理性与判断，而浪漫主义作家则重视想象和情感；18世纪作家强调经验的普遍性和一般性，而浪漫主义作家则重视个人的主观感受和经验的特殊性；18实际作家强调社会的总体价值，而浪漫主义作家则重视个人价值的挖掘和实现；18世纪作家主要从古典文学特别是希腊文学中寻求摹仿的对象和灵感，而浪漫主义作家则从中世纪的民间故事中寻求灵感和创作的源泉。所有这些（还有更多）都构成了英国浪漫主义时期文学创作的独特风格。更具体地说，英国浪漫主义文学除了具有各国浪漫主义文学所共有的以自我为中心来歌颂自我、抒发自我情感的特征以外，还有其独特的特色。该特色可以从被称为英国浪漫主义宣言书《抒情歌谣集》的序言中略见一斑。在“序言”里，诗人华兹华斯满怀豪情地宣称：“一切好的诗歌都是强烈情感的自然流露”；“在所有这些诗歌里，我自己给自己制定的目标是要从普通人的生活中选取事件和情景，并尽可能地使用有普通人的语言去讲述或描述它们。” 华兹华斯不但从理论上告别了18世纪诗坛的陈词滥调，而且还与密友柯勒律治一起在《抒情歌谣集》里成功地实践了他崭新的创作观。

英国乃至世界的浪漫主义运动发生在18世纪19世纪之交并非偶然。它是与当时世界性的革命运动思潮息息相关的，美洲的民族独立解放运动（美丽坚合众国的成立）、法国大革命的迅猛发展、以及欧洲各国特别是英国的工业革命都对浪漫主义运动的兴起产生了巨大的推动力。特别是法国大革命，它对浪漫主义运动首先发生在欧洲负有直接责任，对英国浪漫主义运动的蓬勃开展更是产生了重大影响。追根溯源，浪漫主义作家在思想上深受德国唯心主义古典哲学的影响，开始重视人的自由、自在和自为性，并开始重新去认识“自我”、审视“自我”，从而进一步追求“自我”价值的实现。正是由于对“自我”内心情感的抒发和追求，英国的浪漫主义作家才与欧洲各国的先驱们一起开始以作品为宣泄口，追求强烈情感的自然流露，张扬个性解放，以锐不可挡之势冲垮了理性统制长达100多年的文学大堤。

就英国文学而言，1798年《抒情歌谣集》的发表标志着英国文学史上的新纪元：文学作品的创作从此摆脱了理性的束缚，由传统的描摹自然、重视理性转向了描摹自我的内心世界、重视自我情感的抒发，一“自我”为中心来构建自我的浪漫世界是英国乃至世界浪漫主义文学的三大突出特征。在具体的创作实践中，英国的浪漫主义作家高举“回到中世纪”的大旗，从中世纪的民间文学创作中大量汲取营养，从而摆脱了古典主义的种中束缚，开始发挥自由的想象，表达强烈的情感，并从内容、语言、形式等诸多方面都进行了新的改革尝试，这一切都构成了英国浪漫主义文学独特的艺术风格，吸引了当时众多的读者。

英国浪漫主义时期常常分为三个时期：一、前浪漫主义时期，代表作家有不莱克（William Blake,1757~1827）、二、早期浪漫主义，主要作家有华兹华斯、柯勒律治等人；三、后期浪漫主义，代表作家为雪莱（Percy  Bysshe  Shelly,1792~1822）、拜伦(George  Gordon  Byron,1788~1824)和济慈（John  Keats,1795~1821）。

值得注意的是，以上提到的英国浪漫主义作家都是诗人，这主要是因为在浪漫主义文学运动中，浪漫主义诗歌无论是在理论上还是在实践上都影响巨大，是同时期的散文和小说无法比拟的。当然，诗歌上的成就并不能取消浪漫主义时期新型散文和小说的贡献，它们都是英国浪漫主义文学运动不可分割的组成部分。就散文而言，这一时期的突出成就是所谓的“亲切文体”（familiar  style）散文随笔的出现。当时的散文大家有三位：兰姆(Charles  Lanb,1775~1834)、哈兹利特(William  Hazlitt,1778~1830)以及德·昆西(Thomas  DE  Quincey,1785~1859)。他们对英国乃至世界散文随笔的发展作出了突出贡献。有趣的是，尽管作为同时代人的兰姆与哈兹利特都才情恣肆，但由于个性、经历的不同，他们的散文随笔却显示了不同的风格：兰姆的随笔重视细节、精于思考、善于用典，往往从生活琐事或日常的知识性题材谈起，或风雅幽默、情趣盎然，或缠绵悱恻、哀惋动人，极富生活气息和人情味，主要作品集有《伊利亚随笔集》（Essays  of  Elia,1823）;哈兹利特则不同，他的散文谈古论今、气势雄伟、汪洋恣肆、“渊深如海”（史蒂文生语），突出特点是更为奔放开朗、波澜曲折，主要散文集有《家常话》（Table  talk,1821~1822）、《素描与随笔》(Sketches  and  Essays)等。

浪漫主义时期小说上的成就则主要体现在内容和题材的创新上。当时小说的主要类型有两种：哥特（Gothic  novel）小说和历史小说(historical  novel)。哥特小说的名称源于中世纪的哥特传奇故事(Gothic romance)，它在中世纪背景的映衬之下（通常是经常闹鬼或阴森的城堡里），通过讲述一段离奇而又惊心动魄的经历来刺激读者，读来令人毛骨悚然。这种小说曾在19世纪的上半期流行一时，是现代恐怖和神秘小说的鼻祖。历史小说的出现主要归功于司各特，正是他的努力才使历史题材进入了小说领域。在司各特的笔下，重大的历史事件和人物配上合适的历史场景又栩栩如生地展现在人们的面前，历史小说当时曾十分流行。简·奥斯丁是这一时期优秀的女小说家。她的小说以描写日常生活交往的细致观察和深刻描绘，所以后人把他的小说称为“风俗小说”(novel  of  manners)。奥斯丁的代表作品《傲慢与偏见》(Pride  and  Prejudice,1813)、《理智与情感》(Sense  and  Sensibility,1811)等是英国文学的经典之作。

弗朗西斯科 彼特拉克（1304-1374），文艺复兴时期意大利著名诗人，以擅长写爱情十四行诗而著名。

                                               It was The Morning    那天早晨

It was the morning of that blessed day,   那一天，太阳也为哀悼上帝变得阴晦暗淡，

Whereon the Sun in pity veiled his glare   我不曾抵抗就做了俘虏，

For the Lord's agony, that, unaware,   因为，夫人，您那美丽的眼睛射出的无形视线

I fell a captive, Lady, to the sway    将我捆缚起来，如同囚犯一般。

Of your swift eyes; that seemed no time to stay    当时我没有意识到预防爱神的纠缠，

The strokes of Love: I stepped into the snare    依然若无其事、自信地迈步向前……

Secure, with no suspicion: then and there    殊不知就在此刻，我的感情之苦

I found my cue in man's most tragic play.   已经伴随着人间之痛一起涌起波涟。

Love caught me naked in his shaft, his sheaf,    在爱神面前我毫无防范，

The entrance for his ambush and surprise    从眼睛到心灵全都门扉大开，

Against the heart wide open through the eyes,    双眼变成热泪流淌的通道和源泉。

The constant gate and fountain of my grief:    但我以为，此情此景之下

How craven so to strike me so,    用箭射中我并不是什么荣耀，

Yet from your fully armed conceal his bow!    因为对您，一个有防范的人，它从不会放箭。

Chapter Three The Middle Ages

1. Background Information

1. In European history, the thousand-year period following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century is called the Middle Ages. It is so called because it came between ancient times and modern times. 2. Charlemagne (742―814), who temporarily restored order in western and central Europe, was perhaps the most important figure of the early medieval period. 3. Alfred the Great (849― 899). ruler of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Wessex, contributed greatly to the medieval European culture. 4. St. Thomas Aquinas (1225― 1274) was an Italian philosopher and theologian, the supreme figure in scholasticism.

2. Specific Contents

A. General Introduction

The Middle Ages

In European history, the thousand-year period following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century is called the Middle Ages. It is so called because it came between ancient times and modern times.

Wars, invasions, destruction, confusion, hunger, disease, During the Medieval times there was no central government to keep the order. The only organization that seemed to unite Europe was the Christian church.. Christianity took the lead in politics, law, art, and learning for hundreds of years. It shaped people‘s lives. That is why the Middle Ages is also called the “Age of Faith” This is a period in which classical, Hebrew and Gothic heritages merged. And it is this fusion and blending of different ideas and practices that paved the way for the development of what is the present-day European culture.

B. Manor and Church  

1) Feudalism: Feudalism in Europe was mainly a system of land holding --- a system of holding land in exchange for military service. The word “feudalism” was derived from the Latin “feudum”, a grant of land.

a. Growth of Feudalism

Most of peasants became serfs (attacks from invaders and robbers----sought protection from powerful landowners--- gave their land and freedom) Very few peasants were freemen --- workers (made ploughs, shod the horses, and made harnesses)

In 732 Charles Martel, a Frankish ruler gave his soldiers estates known as fiefs as reward for their service. Soldiers (fiefs)----lesser vassals------lords(vassals)----king Thus a complicated system of government developed. After 800, the kings in Europe were usually very weak. Without a strong central government the kingdoms of Western Europe were divided into thousands of feudal manors or farming communities, each as big as an ancient polis. Some nobles grew more powerful than the king, and became independent rulers. They had right to collect taxes and to make their own laws. Many of them coined their own money and raised their own armies. Therefore feudalism was also a system of government --- a form of local and decentralized government.

b. The Manor

The central medieval life under feudalism was the manor. Manors were founded on the fiefs of the lords. Some lords owned only one manor; others owned many. They lived in a manor house. Manors house --- fortresses--- castles

Almost all nobles were knights in the medieval days. But no one was born a knight ---knighthood had to be earned. The training was both long and hard.

2) The Church

After 1054, the church was divided into the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church.

a. The organization of Church

The word “catholic” means “universal” The Catholic Church was a highly centralized and disciplined international organization.

b. Church Fathers and Early Monasticism

St. Jerome – a notable champion of early monasticism. He translated into Old and New Testaments from the Hebrew and Greek originals. His translation work, the Vulgate, became the official Latin Bible used by the Roman Catholic Church of this day.

Augustine of Hippo --- the most important of all the leaders of Christian thought. He lived in North Africa in the 5th century. “The Confession” and “The City of God” by him are masterpieces of world renown. St. Benedict ---another great early monk who founded Benedictine Rule about 529 A.D. The monks who followed Benedict‘s rule promised to give up all their possession before entering the monastery. They wore simple clothes and ate only certain simple foods. They could not marry and had to obey without question the orders of the abbot. They had to attend service seven times during the day and once at midnight. In addition they were expected to work five hours a day in the fields surrounding the monastery.

c. The Power and Influence of the Catholic Church

Under feudalism, people of Western Europe were mainly divided into three classes: clergy, lords and peasants. Kings, nobles and church officials worked together to rule the people.

Clergymen were the only teachers, as they were the best-educated men in their day. People pay taxes to churches. Nobles and kings often gave lands, crops or cattle to support the church. Many high church officials were themselves big landowners and influential nobles. The pope not only ruled Rome and parts of Italy as a king, he was also the head of all Christian churches in western Europe. The church set up a church court --- the Inquisition to stamp out so-called heresy. The Medieval Church was the center of daily life in the country and town alike, and it had a part in all important events. Apart from being a place of worship, the church building was a place for recreation and the center of trade and community activity.

3) The Crusades

Reason: In 1071 Palestine fell to the armies of the Turkish Moslems… (p96) Process: Holy wars /crusade went on about 200 years. There were altogether eight chief Crusades: First Crusade 1096—1099 Second Crusade 1147--- 1149 Third Crusade 1189--- 1192 Fourth Crusade 1202--- 1204 Fifth Crusade 1218--- 1221 Sixth Crusade 1228--- 1229 Seventh Crusade 1248--- 1254 Eighth Crusade 1270 End: By 1291 the Moslems had taken over the last Christian stronghold. They won the crusades. Significance: Although the Crusades did not achieve their goal to regain the Holy land, they had an important effect on the future of both the East and the West. They brought the East into closer contact with the West. And they greatly influenced the history of Europe. Crusades helped to break down feudalism, which, in turn led to the rise of the monarchies. Through their contact with the more cultured Byzantines and Moslems, the western Europeans changed many of their old ideas. The Crusades also resulted in renewing people‘s interest in learning and invention.

C. Learning and Science

1) Charlemagne and Carolingian Renaissance

Charlemagne/Charles/Charles the Great (742--814), who temporarily restored order in western and central Europe, was perhaps the most important figure of the early medieval period. He kept order throughout his realm, and he encouraged interest in the Christian religion and ancient learning. He was crowned “Emperor of the Romans” by the Pope in 800.

Carolingian Renaissance

Charlemagne encouraged learning by setting up monastery schools, giving support to scholars and setting scribes to work copying various ancient books. Because the scribes performed their tasks well, few of the ancient works that had survived until that time were ever lost. The result of Charlemagne’s efforts is usually called the “Carolingian Renaissance”, The most interesting facet of this rather minor renaissance is spectacle of Frankish or Germanic state reaching out to assimilate the riches of the Roman Classical and the Christianized Hebraic culture.

2) Alfred the Great and Wessex Centre of Learning

Alfred the Great (849--899), ruler of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Wessex, contributed greatly to the medieval European culture. He worried about the disappearance of learning and made Wessex the Anglo-Saxon culture center by introducing teachers and scholars, founding new monasteries, and promoting translations into the vernacular from Latin works. He also inspired the compilation of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles.

3) St. Thomas Aquinas and Scholasticism

St. Thomas Aquinas (1225---1274) was an Italian philosopher and theologian, the supreme figure in scholasticism. His Summa Theologica forms an enormous system and sums up all the knowledge of medieval theology. It defends feudal theocracy by arguing that the feudal hierarchy of society is “ God’s rule”, the power of feudal rulers originates from “ God’s will”, and the Pope is “ Christ’s Plenipotentiary” above the secular rulers.

4) Roger Bacon and Experimental Science

Science made little progress during the Middle Ages. Superstition was widespread. False sciences based on the practice of “magic” were popular. Astrology (foretelling the future by study of the stars) Alchemy (converting base metals into gold) Real scientific progress did not begin until the 12th and 13th centuries.

Roger Bacon (about 1220---1292), a monk, was one of the earliest advocates of scientific research. He called for careful observation and experimentation. His main work was the Opus maius, and encyclopedia of the sciences of his time.

D. Literature

1) National Epics

“National epics” refers to the epic written in vernacular languages --- that is, the languages of various national states that came into being in the Middle Ages.

a. Beowulf (700-750 A.D.)

Beowulf is an Anglo-Saxon epic, in alliterative verse, originating from the collective efforts of oral literature. The story is set in Demark or Sweden and tells how the hero, Beowulf, defeats the monster Grendel and Grendel‘s mother, a sea monster, but eventually receives his own death in fighting with a fire dragon.

b. Song of Roland (about 12century A.D.)

Song of Roland is the most well-known of a group of French epics. It tells how Roland, one of Charlemagne‘s warriors, fights in Spain and dies defending a pass in the Pyrenees.

2) Dante Alighieri and The Divine Comedy

Dante Alighieri (1265---1321) was the greatest poet of Italy and also a prose writer, literary theorist, moral philosopher as well as political thinker. His masterpiece, The   Divine Comedy, is one of the landmarks of world literature. The poem expresses humanistic ideas which foreshadowed the spirit of Renaissance.

3) Geoffery Chaucer and The Canterbury Tales

Chaucer (1340--1400) was an English poet. The Canterbury Tales were his most popular work for their power of observation, piercing irony, sense of humor and warm humanity. The book contains twenty-four tales told by a group of pilgrims on their journey to Canterbury. Chaucer is regarded as the first short story teller and the first modern poet in English literature.

E. Art and Architecture

1) Romanesque

The buildings, sculpture, painting, and decorative arts created in Europe, during the 11th and 12th centuries exhibit a style that, in spite of national and regional variations, has numerous common characteristics. This has led the scholars to coin the term “Romanesque”, which means “in the Roman manner”. Romanesque art is predominantly religious. Architecture is characterized by massiveness, solidity, and monumentality with an overall blocky appearance. Sculpture and painting, primarily in churches, developed a wonderful unity with the architecture. Both arts are imbued with symbolism and allegory.

2) Gothic

The Gothic style started in France and quickly spread through all parts of Western Europe. It flourished and lasted from the mid-12th to the end of 15th century and, in some areas, into the 16th. More churches were built in this manner than in any other style in history. Gothic cathedrals soared high, their windows, arches and towers reaching heavenward, flinging their passion against the sky. They were decorated with beautiful stained glass windows and sculptures more lifelike than any since ancient Rome.

【背景知识】

18世纪的英国政局相对稳定，资本主义经济得以持续发展，国力强盛，不断发动对外战争，在世界各地建立了许多殖民地和半殖民地。工业革命方兴为艾、圈地运动仍在继续。资产阶级与劳动人民的矛盾日益突出，各地爆发了无数次起义。爱尔兰人民也掀起了民族解放运动。  

新古典主义的代表人物是蒲伯。蒲伯是古典主义诗歌最重要的代表人物，他自如地运用“英雄双行体”的诗歌，并将其发挥到极至。他也是一位讽刺大师，《夺发记》（The Rape of the Lock,1714）嘲笑了上流社会。

随着政治生活的活跃和城市人口的增加，伦敦各种报刊激增，散文创作空前活跃，为现实主义小说的发展奠定了基础。丹尼尔•笛福（Daniel Defoe,1660～1731）因创办了《评论》（The Review,1704～1713）杂志而成为英国报刊业的奠基人。当然，迪福之所以流芳百世更是因为他取得的以《鲁滨逊漂流记》（Robinson Crusoe,1719）为代表的小说成就。爱迪森（Joseph Addison,1672～1719）和史蒂尔（Sir Richard Steele,1672～1729）共同创办的《闲话报》（The Tatler,1709～1711）和《旁观者》（The Spectator,1711～1712）面向中产阶级读者，起到了传播文化和道德说教的作用。

这一阶段的散文也得到了发展。各个领域的散文巨著竞相面世：文学评论以约翰逊博士编辑的莎士比亚戏剧《序言》（Preface,1765）和《诗人传》（The Lives of the Poets,1779～1781）为代表；最著名的传记当推鲍士威尔（James Boswell,1740～1795）的《约翰逊传》（Life of Johnson,1791）。埃德蒙•伯克（Edmund Burke,1729～1791）的一系列争论小册子更是用精辟的语言表述了自己的政见。爱德华•吉本（Edward Gibbon,1737～1794）的历史巨著《罗马帝国衰亡史》（The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,1776～1788）和亚当•斯密（Adam Smith,1723～1790）的《国富论》（An Enquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations,1776）等亦在史学界和经济学领域引起了轰动。

这一阶段英国小说获得新的发展。小说家们更注重描写中下层人民的形象，小说题材更贴近现实生活，小说结构更加完整，语言更加通俗易懂。塞缪尔•理查逊（Samuel Richardson,1689～1761）的书信体小说《帕美拉》（Pamela,or Virtue Rewarded,1740）首次以处于社会底层的女佣为主人公，注重以情动人，为小说发展开辟了新天地。亨利•菲尔丁（Henry Fielding,1707～1754）则代表了18世纪英国小说的最高成就，其代表作《汤姆•琼斯》（Tom Jones,a Fondling,1749）标志着英国小说已臻成熟。斯威夫特更是一个毫不妥协的讽刺作家。他的系列讽刺作品，《书籍之战》（The Battle of Books,1704）、《一只桶的故事》（A Tale of a Tub,1704）以及《格利佛游记》（Gulliver’s Travels,1726）等对当时社会的各个领域、阶层，乃至人类本身的丑陋进行了无情和辛辣的讽刺。 托比•斯摩莱特（Tobia Smollett,1721～1771）的《兰登传》（Roderick Random,1748）和《亨弗雷•克林克》（Humphrey Clinker,1771）也是这一时期的名作。怪才劳伦斯•斯泰恩（Laurence Sterne,1713～1768）创作的奇书《项迪传》（Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy,1759～1767）打破常规叙事模式，穿插无休止的离题话、不完整的句子、空白页、古怪的句法结构、幽默的奇思和伤感情调等，成为20世纪后现代派小说的开山鼻祖。小说发展的另一个特点是恐怖小说或“哥特式”小说（Gothic Novel）的盛行：霍勒斯•沃尔波尔（Horace Walpole,1717～1797）的《奥特兰托堡》（The Castle of Otranto,1765），威廉•贝克福德（William Beckford,1759～1844）的《瓦塞克》（Vathek,1786），安•拉德克利佛夫人（Mrs Ann Radcliff,1764～1823）的《尤多福的奥秘》（The Mysteries of Udolpho,1794）等，展示了一个个希奇古怪、神秘莫测的幻想世界，表达了对社会中商主义的不满。

与小说相比，18世纪后半叶的戏剧则显得相形见绌。理查德•布林斯雷•谢立丹（Richard Brinsley Sheridan,1751～1816）是这一时期最重要的喜剧作家，其《造谣学校》（The School for Scandal,1777）以精巧的语言和生动的场面尖锐讽刺了上流社会的虚伪和荒淫。奥利弗•哥尔斯密斯（Oliver Goldsmith,1728～1774）的《屈身求爱》（She Stoops to Conquer,1773）也不失为出色的喜剧，在揭露社会现实的同时，表达了一种田园牧歌般的幻想。这种幻想也充溢于他的小说《威克菲牧师传》（The Vicar of Wakefield,1766）和诗歌《荒村》（The Deserted Village,1770）。

这一阶段的诗歌可以说是一大突破，因为它预示着浪漫主义的到来。年轻一代是人打破蒲伯极力推崇的诗歌标准和创作方法，强调灵感和独创的重要性。托马斯•格雷（Thomas Gray,1716～1771）的“墓地挽歌”（Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard,1750）和“诗人”（The Bard,1757），威廉•柯林斯（William Collins,1721～1759）的“咏黄昏”（Ode to Evening,1747）和“咏苏格兰山地流行的迷信”（Ode on the Popular Superstitions of the Highlands,1749），威廉•库珀（William Cooper,1731～1800）的《约翰•吉尔平》（John Gilpin,1785）等都是不可多得的佳作。预言家、人类精神的解放者威廉•布莱克（William Blake,1757～1827）和苏格兰民族诗人罗伯特•彭斯（Robert Burns,1759～1796）则为浪漫主义的到来吹响了前奏。

【莎士比亚，W. 】（William Shakes beare 1564～1616） 英国著名戏剧家和诗人。出生于沃里克郡斯特拉特福镇的一个富裕市民家庭，曾在当地文法学校学习。13岁时家道中落辍学经商，约1586年前往伦敦。先在剧院门前为贵族顾客看马，后逐渐成为剧院的杂役、演员、剧作家和股东。1597年在家乡购置了房产，一生的最后几年在家乡度过。

　　莎士比亚是16世纪后半叶到17世纪初英国最著名的作家（本·琼斯称他为“时代的灵魂”），也是欧洲文艺复兴时期人文主义文学的集大成者。他共写有37部戏剧，154首14行诗，两首长诗和其他诗歌。长诗《维纳斯与阿多尼斯》（1592～1593）和《鲁克丽丝受辱记》（1593～1594）均取材于罗马诗人维奥维德吉尔的著作，主题是描写爱情不可抗拒以及谴责违背“荣誉”观念的兽行。14行诗（1592～1598）多采用连续性的组诗形式，主题是歌颂友谊和爱情。其主要成就是戏剧，按时代、思想和艺术风格的发展，可分为早、中、晚3个时期。

　　早期（1590～1600年）：这时期的伊丽莎白中央主权尚属巩固，王室跟工商业者及新贵族的暂时联盟尚在发展，1588年打败西班牙“无敌舰队”后国势大振。这使作者对生活充满乐观主义情绪，相信人文主义思想可以实现。这时期所写的历史剧和喜剧都表现出明朗、乐观的风格。历史剧如《理查三世》（1592）、《亨利三世》（1599）等，谴责封建暴君，歌颂开明君主，表现了人文主义的反封建暴政和封建割据的开明政治理想。喜剧如《仲夏夜之梦》（1596），《第十二夜》（1600）、《皆大欢喜》（16O0）等，描写温柔美丽、坚毅勇敢的妇女，冲破重重封建阻拦，终于获得爱情胜利，表现了人文主义的歌颂自由爱情和反封建禁欲束缚的社会人生主张。就连这时期写成的悲剧《罗密欧与朱丽叶》（1595）也同样具有不少明朗乐观的因素。

　　中期（1601～1607年）：这时英国农村的“圈地运动”正在加速进行，王权和资产阶级及新贵族的暂时联盟正在瓦解，社会矛盾深化重结，政治经济形势日益恶化，詹姆士一世继位后的挥霍无度和倒行逆施，更使人民痛苦加剧，反抗迭起。在这种情况下，莎士比亚深感人文主义理想与现实的矛盾越来越加剧，创作风格也从明快乐观变为阴郁悲愤，其所写的悲剧也不是重在歌颂人文主义理想，而是重在揭露批判社会的种种罪恶和黑暗。代表作《哈姆雷特》（16O1）展现了一场进步势力与专治黑暗势力寡不敌众的惊心动魄斗争。《奥赛罗》（1604）描写了一幕冲破封建束缚又陷入资本主义利己主义阴谋的青年男女的感人爱情悲剧。《李尔王》（1606）描写刚愎自用的封建君王在真诚和伪善的事实教育下变为一个现实而具同情心的“人”的过程。《麦克白》（1606）则揭露权势野心对人的毁灭性腐蚀毒害作用。这时期所写的喜剧《终成眷属》、《一报还一报》等也同样具有悲剧色彩。

　　晚期（1608～1612年）：这时詹姆士一世王朝更加腐败，社会矛盾更加尖锐。莎士比亚深感人文主义理想的破灭，乃退居故乡写浪漫主义传奇剧。其创作风格也随之表现为浪漫空幻。《辛白林》（1609）和《冬天的故事》（1610）写失散后的团聚或遭诬陷后的昭雪、和解。《暴风雨》（1611）写米兰公爵用魔法把谋权篡位的弟弟安东尼奥等所乘的船摄到荒岛，并宽恕了他，其弟也交还了王位。一场类似《哈姆雷特》的政治风暴，在宽恕感化中变得风平浪静。

　　马克思称莎士比亚为“人类最伟大的天才之一”。恩格斯盛赞其作品的现实主义精神与情节的生动性、丰富性。莎氏的作品几乎被翻译成世界各种文字。1919年后被介绍到中国，现已有中文的《莎士比亚全集》。

Greek Culture：

A. The Historical Context

(1). 1200 B.C. the war of Troy

A war was fought between Greece and Troy, ending in the destruction of Troy.

(2). 5th century B.C. Greek culture reached a high point of development.

--- successful repulse of the Persian invasion

--- the establishment of democracy

--- the flourishing of science, philosophy, literature, art and historical writing in Athens The century closed with civil war between Athens and Sparta

(3). In the second half of the 4th century B.C.

All Greece was brought under the rule of Alexander, king of Macedon

Greek culture was spread

(4). In 146 B.C. the Romans conquered Greece

B. Social and Political Structure

Politics --- Athens was a democracy

Democracy means ― “exercise of power by the whole people.”

But “the whole people” the Greeks meant only the adult male citizens.

Economy --- the economy of Athens rested on an immense amount of slave labor.

Farm, workshop, mine

There was harsh exploitation in Greek society

Sports --- Greeks loved sports

A big festival on Olympus Mount once every 4 year ---- Olympic Games

Modern Olympic Games revived in 1896 顾拜旦(法)

C. Homer (probably lived around 700 B.C.)

Two epics: Iliad; Odysseus (They are about great men and wars of a remoter age, probably in the period 1200—1100 B.C)

D. Lyric Poetry

Sappho (about 612—580 B.C.) woman poet

She is noted for her love poems of passionate intensity, some of which are addressed to women. She was considered the most important lyric poet of ancient Greece. Many Greek and Latin writers know nearly all her poems by heart. But in the 10th century the Christian church burned her works. Only fragments remain. Two samples

E. Drama

Origin: perform plays at religious festivals. Develop: in the 5th century B.C. a powerful drama developed States: open-air theatres, audience sat on stone benches and looked down at the stage from three sides, actors wore masks

Tragedy

Aeschylus (525 — 456 B.C.) Works: Prometheus Bound, Persians, and Agamemnon In these plays there are only two actors and a chorus. Yet they manage to stir and move the audience deeply by showing heroes and heroines in complicated human situations, out of which there is no escape but death. The play are written in verse. Aeschylus is noted for his vivid character portrayal and majestic poetry Sophocles (496 --- 406 B.C.) Works: Oedipus the King, Electra《厄勒克特拉》, and Antigone《安提戈涅》. Contribution: he added a third actor and decreased the size of the chorus. Sophodcles has had a strong impact on European literature. Some of his plots were taken over and adoped by later writers. The Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud‘s term ―the Oedipus complex‖ was also derived from Sophocles‘s play. Euripides (484 --- 406 B.C.) Works: Andromache《安德洛玛刻》, Medea《美狄亚》, and Trojan Women

Comedy

Aristophanes (about 450 --- 380 B.C.) Works: Frogs, Clouds, Wasps and Birds These plays are loose in plot and satirical in tone.

F. History

Historical writing started early in Greece. Herodotus (484 --- 430 B.C.) ―Father of History‖, he wrote about the wars between Greeks and Persians. His history, full of anecdotes and digressions and lively dialogue, is wonderfully readable. He kept alive many traditional stories, which were not always accurate. His object in writing was ―that the great and wonderful deeds done by Greeks and Persians should not lack renown.‖ Thucydides (about 460 --- 404 B.C.) Younger than Herodotus, he is more accurate as an historian. He traced events to their causes and brought out their effects. He was never dull, but wrote with imagination and power. He was called ―the greatest historian that ever lived.‖ by Macaulay (an eminent historian)

G. Philosophy and Science

The ancient Greeks were curious about many things, including what made the universe. They had the spirit of free enquiry and were quite ready to drop established ideas, to speculate, to use their imagination and to form their own conclusions. They were also not afraid to speak their minds. Pythagoras (about 580 --- 500 B.C.) had the idea that all things were mumber. Heracleitue (about 540 --- 480 B.C.) believed fire to be the primary element of the universe He also said: You cannot step twice into the same river. The sun is new everyday Democritus (about 460 --- 370 B.C.) speculated about the atomic structure of matter. He was one of the earliest exponents of the atomic theory.

a. Socrates ( about 470 --- 399 B.C.) details in textbook P-23

The dialectical method --- method of argument, by questions and answers. Greek philosopher who initiated a question-and-answer method of teaching as a means of achieving self-knowledge. His theories of virtue and justice have survived through the writings of Plato, his most important pupil. Socrates was tried for corrupting the minds of Athenian youth and subsequently put to death (399).

苏格拉底希腊哲学家，首创了问答工教学方法，作为获得认识自我的一种方法。他关于道德和正义的理论，通过柏拉图（他最著名的学生）的著作而得以流传下来。苏格拉底因被指控毒害雅典年轻人的头脑而受到审判，并因此被处死（公元前339年）。

b. Plato ( about 428 ---348 B.C.) P-26

Men have knowledge because of the existence of certain general “ideas”, like beauty, truth, goodness. Only these “ideas” are completely real, while the physical world is only relatively real. For this reason, Plato’s philosophy is called Idealism.(唯心主义) Greek philosopher. A follower of Socrates, he founded the Academy (386), where he taught and wrote for much of the rest of his life. Plato presented his ideas in the form of dramatic dialogues, as in The Republic. 柏拉图希腊哲学家，苏格拉底的信徒，他创办了学园（公元前386年），在这里他教书写作度过他余生的大部分时间柏拉图以戏剧对话的形式表述了他的思想，如在理想国中。

c. Aristotle (384 --- 322 B.C.) P- 27

Greek philosopher. A pupil of Plato, the tutor of Alexander the Great, and the author of works on logic, metaphysics, ethics, natural sciences, politics, and poetics, he profoundly influenced Western thought. In his philosophical system theory follows empirical observation and logic, based on the syllogism, is the essential method of rational inquiry. 亚里士多德希腊哲学家。柏拉图的学生，亚历山大大帝的教师，他的著述论及逻辑学，形而上学，伦理学，自然科学，政治学和诗学，对西方思想产生了深远影响，在其哲学体系里，理论服从实地观察和逻辑，以三段论为基础，基本上是理性研究的理论方法。

d. Contending Schools of Thought

In the 4th century B.C., four schools of philosophers often argued with each other. They were:

The Cynics 犬儒主义got their name because Diogenes.戴奥真尼斯(希腊的哲学家,公主张“简单寡求”的生活，决心像狗一样生活下去。元前412-323), one of their leaders, decided to live like a dog and the word “cynic” means “dog” in Greek. He rejected all conventions --- whether of religion, of manners, dress, housing, food, or of decency. He advocated self-sufficiency and extreme simplicity in life. In fact, he lived by begging. He proclaimed his brotherhood, not only with the whole human race, but also with animals. On the other hand, he had no patience with the rich and powerful. The story is told of how Alexander the Great visited him and asked if he wanted any favour. “Only to stand out of my light”, he replied. The Sceptics 怀疑学派 （对一切知识持怀疑态度）followed Pyrrho (皮洛 about 360—272B.C.古希腊极端怀疑主义哲学家), who held that not all knowledge was attainable. Hence he and his followers doubted the truth of what others accepted as true. The Epicureans伊壁鸠鲁学派（主张将快乐进行到底）were disciples of Epicurus (伊壁鸠鲁 341-270B.C.古希腊杰出唯物主义和无神论者), who believed pleasure to be the highest good in life, but by pleasure he meant, not sensual enjoyment, but freedom from pain and emotional upheaval. This he thought could be attained by the practice of virtue. His teaching was misunderstood by later people and the word “Epicurean” has come to mean indulgence in luxurious living. Epicurus was a materialist. Following Democritus, he believed that the world consisted of atoms. The Stoics斯多葛派（倡导“克己制欲、顺从天命”） were opposed to the Epicureans. To them, the most important thing in life was not “pleasure”, but “duty”. This developed into the theory that one should endure hardship and misfortune with courage. The chief Stoic was Zeno(齐诺about 335 – 263 B.C. 希腊哲学家, 斯多葛派的创始人)

e. Science

Euclid 欧几里得(约公元前3世纪的古希腊数学家) is even now well-known for his Element《几何原本》, a textbook of geometry, perhaps the most successful textbook ever written, because it was in use in English schools until the early years of the 20th century. Archimedes 阿基米德 (287—212 B.C.) did important work not only in geometry, but also in arithmetic, machanics, and hydrostatics. “Give me a place to stand, and I will move the world.” Greek science did not neglect application. Mathematics, the purest of sciences, was applied in at least five fields: acoustics, optics, geography, statics and astronomy. Greek scientists collected a wealth of material and enquired into the proper method of doing scientific work. As a result, they were able to deduce theories and built up systems, which had a tremendous influence on later scientists.

H. Architecture

a. Art

Greek art is a visual proof of Greek civilization.

b. Architecture

Greek architecture can be grouped into 3 styles (1). the Doric Style ( masculine style ) ---- is sturdy (strong and firm), powerful, severe looking, showing a good sense of proportions and numbers. (2). the Ionic Style (feminine style ) ---- is graceful and elegant (slightly ornamental style) (While the Doric Style is monotonous and unadorned, the Ionic style often shows a wealth of ornament) (3). Corinthian Style ---- is known for its ornamental luxury The famous temples:

Parthenon (447 -- 432 B.C.)--- the most perfect of all the Greek temples, 240 feet long and 110 feet wide, a rectangular structure with evenly spaced lines of columns around

Acrpolis (437 – 432 B.C.)

c. Sculpture

The earliest Greek sculptures were those of Gods. Stiff, lifeless wood carvings. Towards the 7th century B.C., the size of the statues became bigger and life-size. The figures stand very stiff with arms close to their sides, hands clenched or flat against the legs. Narrow waists but broad shoulders and their hair was done in neat and rhythmical rows. Towards the 5th century B.C., change from stiff and mechanical to a period in which the beauty of the internal structure of human bodies and mythological figures are well-observed and brought out. Discus Thrower A good sense of harmony and the balance of opposites Venus de Milo It has been looked upon as a symbol of beauty, grace and health, a personification of vitality and dignity. Laocoon group about 125 B.C. It is known for its successful depiction of the expression of Laocoon‘s face – fear, sympathy and terror.

论读书

读书足以怡情，足以傅彩，足以长才。其怡情也，最见于独处幽居之时；其傅彩也，最见于高谈阔论之中；其长才也，最见于处世判事之际。

练达之士虽能分别处理细事或一一判别枝节，然纵观统筹，全局策划，则舍好学深思者莫属。读书费时过多易惰，文采藻饰太盛则矫，全凭条文断事乃学究故态。

读书补天然之不足，经验又补读书之不足，盖天生才干犹如自然花草，读书然后知如何修剪移接，而书中所示，如不以经验范之，则又大而无当。

有一技之长者鄙读书，无知者羡读书，唯明智之士用读书，然书并不以用处告人，用书之智不在书中，而在书外，全凭观察得之。
读书时不可存心诘难读者，不可尽信书上所言，亦不可只为寻章摘句，而应推敲细思。

书有可浅尝者，有可吞食者，少数则须咀嚼消化。换言之，有只需读其部分者，有只须大体涉猎者，少数则须全读，读时须全神贯注，孜孜不倦。书亦可请人代读，取其所作摘要，但只限题材较次或价值不高者，否则书经提炼犹如水经蒸馏，淡而无味。
     
读书使人充实，讨论使人机智，笔记使人准确。因此不常做笔记者须记忆力特强，不常讨论者须天生聪颖，不常读书者须欺世有术，始能无知而显有知。

读史使人明智，读诗使人灵秀，数学使人周密，科学使人深刻，伦理学使人庄重，逻辑修辞之学使人善辩；凡有所学，皆成性格。

人之才智但有滞碍，无不可读适当之书使之顺畅，一如身体百病，皆可借相宜之运动除之。滚球利睾肾，射箭利胸肺，慢步利肠胃，骑术利头脑，诸如此类。如智力不集中，可令读数学，盖演题需全神贯注，稍有分散即须重演；如不能辩异，可令读经院哲学，盖是辈皆吹毛求疵之人；如不善求同，不善以一物阐证另一物，可令读律师之案卷。如此头脑中凡有缺陷，皆有特效可医。

--王佐良　译

【背景介绍】

   在英国历史上，17世纪前60年，是一个动荡不安，风云际会的时代：期间爆发了震惊世界的英国清教革命。事实上，早在16世纪末，伊丽莎白女王统治晚期，英国社会已危机暗伏。1588年，英国战胜了西班牙无敌舰队，取得海上霸主的地位。外患既去，内忧渐起，一致对外时被搁置一旁的种种矛盾逐渐暴露了出来，并迅速激化：以宗教改革为目的的清教实力日益壮大，矛头直指黑暗腐败的国教；议会和王权间摩擦频繁，新兴资产阶级羽翼渐丰，不甘雌伏于王权之下；兼之两任斯图亚特王（Stuart Kings）詹姆士一世（James Ⅰ,1566～1625）和查理一世（Charles I,1600～1649）缺乏政治才能，政府腐化，人民的不满情绪高涨，1642年英国内战终于爆发。1649年，保皇党大败，查理一世被议会激进派送上了断头台。然而，随后成立的共和政府实际上是处在克伦威尔的军事独裁之下，人们对严酷的清教统治渐感失望。1660年，英王查理二世（Charles Ⅱ,1630～1685）回国，斯图亚特王权复辟。虽然从表面上看，复辟后的国家结构与大革命之前并无二致，但这一历史性的大变革却对社会生活的各个方面产生了强烈的冲击。在不足百年的时间里，英国从一个君权至上的严格的等级社会变成了一个充满活力的，多种实力并存的物质社会。

17世纪上半叶，影响英国的不仅是清教革命，一场思想革命也在悄然展开。现代天文学家哥白尼（Nicolaus Copernicus,1473～1543）大胆提出了日心说，推翻了地球是宇宙中心的观念。英国在60年代初成立了科学团体“皇家学会”（The Royal Society）,人们热衷于进行天文、医学、物理、化学等方面的研究和实验。如果说大革命有形地摧毁了王权统治，那么这些早期的科学探索则在无形间从思想上摇捍了君权神授的等级世界观。在这两股势力的合力下，英国社会向多元化发展。

社会的动荡，思想的革新，对这一时期的文学作品产生了深远的影响。伊丽莎白时代华丽铺排的文风不见了，自信乐观的口吻消失了，对“乌托邦”式的理想世界的浪漫向往被人所淡忘。17世纪的作家们身处在一个多种价值观念激烈交锋的时代，他们赋予这个时代的文学崭新的内涵。

首先，17世纪，玄学派诗歌异军突起。这派诗人虽然继承了伊丽莎白时代诗歌复杂精妙的语言特色，却尽弃那一时代甜腻空乏，故作优雅的文风。他们的诗歌较口语化；韵脚复杂，不规则；思辨性强，涵盖面广，天文、地理、哲学、物理皆可入诗；充满了奇思妙想（conceit）,将各种看似毫不相干的意象冶于一炉。塞缪尔•约翰逊博士（Samuel Johnson,1709～1784）批评这派诗人将杂七杂八的思想拉到一处，全凭蛮力（The most heterogeneous ideas are yoked by violence together.）虽然玄学派诗人的确有卖弄学问之嫌，喜欢语出惊人，但是，约翰逊博士所指的“蛮力”（violence），恰恰揭示出这类诗作里隐藏着裹挟一切的巨大能量；那些看似庞杂无章的意象恰恰是这个动荡混乱的时代的一种反映。玄学派诗人正是通过复杂的哲学思辨试图对复杂的现实社会加以再现。难怪他们的作品在20世纪初同样身处动荡时代的现代派诗人中找到了共鸣。玄学派诗人中的佼佼者是约翰•邓恩（John Donne,1572～1631）,他的创作《歌与短歌》（Songs and Sonnets）和《圣十四行诗》（Holy Sonnets）闻名于世。乔治•赫伯特（George Herbert,1593～1633）被誉为“玄学派诗圣”，他的诗歌带有强烈的宗教色彩，代表作是《圣殿》（The Temple）.安德鲁•马维尔（Andrew Marvell,1621～1678）的“花园”（The Garden）和“致他羞怯的女友”（To His Coy Mistress）都是英国是个不可多得的精品。虽然马维尔的想象没有邓恩那么瑰丽突兀，但他的诗风平静清新，有一种庄严典雅之美。

这一时期另一个主要诗歌流派以本•琼生（Ben Jonson,1573～1637）为领袖，人们称他们为The Tribe of Ben.因为这派诗人（Sons of Ben）多是乡绅出身，有保皇倾向，又称“骑士派诗人”（the Cavalier Poets）。他们的诗歌追循古典主义原则，推崇理性和谐和规律，讲究古典精炼的形式和严格的韵脚，对其后兴起的新古典主义（Neo-Classism）诗歌，尤其是德莱顿（John Dryden）和蒲伯（Alexander Pope）的作品，产生了重大影响。其代表人物本•琼生的诗歌简洁明快，表达干净洗练，说理确切有力。他的继承者罗伯特•赫里克（Robert Herrick,1591～1674），约翰•塞克林（John Suckling,1609～1641）和理查德•勒夫莱斯（Richard Lovelace,1618～1657）则文风优雅，措辞精妙。他们的作品流露出一种贵族式的淡然，缺少了琼生的严肃，却完整保留了琼生讲究琢磨，推崇精细的特色。

进入17世纪，伊丽莎白时代最为盛行的文学形式——戏剧，受到了清心寡欲的清教徒和道德家的强烈抨击，戏剧家们不得不依附于宫庭权贵，寻求他们的庇护。这一时期的戏剧创作以复仇剧和闹剧式的喜剧为主，充满了暴力、血腥、疯狂、腐败和恣肆的激情，其中最成功的作品要数本•琼生的喜剧。琼生的喜剧专门讽刺社会，抨击时代，剧中人物多受某中气质（humours）或情欲的支配，无法自控。他的喜剧中既有高雅的古典主义成分，又有低俗的滑稽荒诞的玩笑，充溢着活力，开创了英国喜剧的传统。他的代表作有《狐狸》（Volpone,1606首次上演），《炼金士》（The Alchemist,1610首次上演）等。1642年，清教革命爆发，剧院被迫关闭，直到1660年王权复辟后才重新开放，戏剧这种伟大的艺术形式走下了文艺复兴时代的巅峰。

17世纪上半叶，是英国散文发展的重要阶段。在这个多种思想激烈冲突的时代，散文以它灵活的形式，宽广的适应范围，为人们提供了阐发个在观点的最快捷方式。这一时期的宗教纷争造就了一批伟大的布道者。兰斯洛特•安德鲁斯和约翰•邓恩的布道文在英国散文中独具一格。不同于培根散文的重说理，重简洁，17世纪上半叶的散文以华美的“巴洛克”风格为主导。医生出生的托马斯•勃朗（Thomas Browne,1605～1682）的《医生哲学》（Religio Medici）、《瓮葬》（Urn-burial）等作品虽然缺乏培根式的缜密的逻辑思维，但文字郁茂，行文细腻，是诗意的散文。罗伯特•伯顿（Robert Burton,1577～1640）的《忧郁的解剖》（The Anatomy of Melancholy，1621）辞章华丽，想象怪诞，或幽默或夸张或愤懑，情感多变。这个时代还诞生了传记散文家伊沙克•沃尔顿（Izaak Walton,1593～1683），日记作家塞缪尔•皮普斯（Samuel Pepys,1633～1703）和撰写《天路历程》的清教作家约翰•班扬。

当然，17世纪英国文坛最伟大的作家非约翰•米尔顿（John Milton,1572～1631）莫属。他的作品中包括英国文学中最精美的十四行诗，最优秀的田园挽诗（Lycidas,1637），最伟大的史诗（Paradise Lost,1667）。他的散文雄辩，气势磅礴，堪称英国散文经典之作。他是这个时代在文学方面的集大成者。

17世纪上半叶的英国文学，依稀带有文艺复兴时代的痕迹，但它更孕育着变革，孕育着一个崭新的文学时代。虽然这一时期的历史跨度不过才短短的60年，却为英国文学史这幅长卷增加了它独特的色彩和图案。

1642年，英国资产阶级革命后的20年里，英国政局动荡，战火连绵不断。以克伦威尔（Oliver Cromwell,1599～1658）为代表的资产阶级极权统治未能平息统治阶层内部及统治阶级与劳动人民之间的矛盾。克伦威尔斯后，斯图亚特王朝卷土重来，查理二世（Charles Ⅱ,1630～1685）于1660年登上王位，这就是“王政复辟”（The Restoration,1660～1688）。这个时期天灾人祸接踵而来：大批共和派人士被屠杀，1665年的瘟疫和1666年的大火使伦敦变成一片废墟。1688年英国爆发了“光荣革命”（The Glorious Revolution），以阻止国王实行君主专制统治。斯图亚特王朝被废黜，资产阶级和贵族互相妥协，建立了君主立宪制。

Greek Culture：

A. The Historical Context

(1). 1200 B.C. the war of Troy

A war was fought between Greece and Troy, ending in the destruction of Troy.

(2). 5th century B.C. Greek culture reached a high point of development.

--- successful repulse of the Persian invasion

--- the establishment of democracy

--- the flourishing of science, philosophy, literature, art and historical writing in Athens The century closed with civil war between Athens and Sparta

(3). In the second half of the 4th century B.C.

All Greece was brought under the rule of Alexander, king of Macedon

Greek culture was spread

(4). In 146 B.C. the Romans conquered Greece

B. Social and Political Structure

Politics --- Athens was a democracy

Democracy means ― “exercise of power by the whole people.”

But “the whole people” the Greeks meant only the adult male citizens.

Economy --- the economy of Athens rested on an immense amount of slave labor.

Farm, workshop, mine

There was harsh exploitation in Greek society

Sports --- Greeks loved sports

A big festival on Olympus Mount once every 4 year ---- Olympic Games

Modern Olympic Games revived in 1896 顾拜旦(法)

C. Homer (probably lived around 700 B.C.)

Two epics: Iliad; Odysseus (They are about great men and wars of a remoter age, probably in the period 1200—1100 B.C)

D. Lyric Poetry

Sappho (about 612—580 B.C.) woman poet

She is noted for her love poems of passionate intensity, some of which are addressed to women. She was considered the most important lyric poet of ancient Greece. Many Greek and Latin writers know nearly all her poems by heart. But in the 10th century the Christian church burned her works. Only fragments remain. Two samples

E. Drama

Origin: perform plays at religious festivals. Develop: in the 5th century B.C. a powerful drama developed States: open-air theatres, audience sat on stone benches and looked down at the stage from three sides, actors wore masks

Tragedy

Aeschylus (525 — 456 B.C.) Works: Prometheus Bound, Persians, and Agamemnon In these plays there are only two actors and a chorus. Yet they manage to stir and move the audience deeply by showing heroes and heroines in complicated human situations, out of which there is no escape but death. The play are written in verse. Aeschylus is noted for his vivid character portrayal and majestic poetry Sophocles (496 --- 406 B.C.) Works: Oedipus the King, Electra《厄勒克特拉》, and Antigone《安提戈涅》. Contribution: he added a third actor and decreased the size of the chorus. Sophodcles has had a strong impact on European literature. Some of his plots were taken over and adoped by later writers. The Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud‘s term ―the Oedipus complex‖ was also derived from Sophocles‘s play. Euripides (484 --- 406 B.C.) Works: Andromache《安德洛玛刻》, Medea《美狄亚》, and Trojan Women

Comedy

Aristophanes (about 450 --- 380 B.C.) Works: Frogs, Clouds, Wasps and Birds These plays are loose in plot and satirical in tone.

F. History

Historical writing started early in Greece. Herodotus (484 --- 430 B.C.) ―Father of History‖, he wrote about the wars between Greeks and Persians. His history, full of anecdotes and digressions and lively dialogue, is wonderfully readable. He kept alive many traditional stories, which were not always accurate. His object in writing was ―that the great and wonderful deeds done by Greeks and Persians should not lack renown.‖ Thucydides (about 460 --- 404 B.C.) Younger than Herodotus, he is more accurate as an historian. He traced events to their causes and brought out their effects. He was never dull, but wrote with imagination and power. He was called ―the greatest historian that ever lived.‖ by Macaulay (an eminent historian)

G. Philosophy and Science

The ancient Greeks were curious about many things, including what made the universe. They had the spirit of free enquiry and were quite ready to drop established ideas, to speculate, to use their imagination and to form their own conclusions. They were also not afraid to speak their minds. Pythagoras (about 580 --- 500 B.C.) had the idea that all things were mumber. Heracleitue (about 540 --- 480 B.C.) believed fire to be the primary element of the universe He also said: You cannot step twice into the same river. The sun is new everyday Democritus (about 460 --- 370 B.C.) speculated about the atomic structure of matter. He was one of the earliest exponents of the atomic theory.

a. Socrates ( about 470 --- 399 B.C.) details in textbook P-23

The dialectical method --- method of argument, by questions and answers. Greek philosopher who initiated a question-and-answer method of teaching as a means of achieving self-knowledge. His theories of virtue and justice have survived through the writings of Plato, his most important pupil. Socrates was tried for corrupting the minds of Athenian youth and subsequently put to death (399).

苏格拉底希腊哲学家，首创了问答工教学方法，作为获得认识自我的一种方法。他关于道德和正义的理论，通过柏拉图（他最著名的学生）的著作而得以流传下来。苏格拉底因被指控毒害雅典年轻人的头脑而受到审判，并因此被处死（公元前339年）。

b. Plato ( about 428 ---348 B.C.) P-26

Men have knowledge because of the existence of certain general “ideas”, like beauty, truth, goodness. Only these “ideas” are completely real, while the physical world is only relatively real. For this reason, Plato’s philosophy is called Idealism.(唯心主义) Greek philosopher. A follower of Socrates, he founded the Academy (386), where he taught and wrote for much of the rest of his life. Plato presented his ideas in the form of dramatic dialogues, as in The Republic. 柏拉图希腊哲学家，苏格拉底的信徒，他创办了学园（公元前386年），在这里他教书写作度过他余生的大部分时间柏拉图以戏剧对话的形式表述了他的思想，如在理想国中。

c. Aristotle (384 --- 322 B.C.) P- 27

Greek philosopher. A pupil of Plato, the tutor of Alexander the Great, and the author of works on logic, metaphysics, ethics, natural sciences, politics, and poetics, he profoundly influenced Western thought. In his philosophical system theory follows empirical observation and logic, based on the syllogism, is the essential method of rational inquiry. 亚里士多德希腊哲学家。柏拉图的学生，亚历山大大帝的教师，他的著述论及逻辑学，形而上学，伦理学，自然科学，政治学和诗学，对西方思想产生了深远影响，在其哲学体系里，理论服从实地观察和逻辑，以三段论为基础，基本上是理性研究的理论方法。

d. Contending Schools of Thought

In the 4th century B.C., four schools of philosophers often argued with each other. They were:

The Cynics 犬儒主义got their name because Diogenes.戴奥真尼斯(希腊的哲学家,公主张“简单寡求”的生活，决心像狗一样生活下去。元前412-323), one of their leaders, decided to live like a dog and the word “cynic” means “dog” in Greek. He rejected all conventions --- whether of religion, of manners, dress, housing, food, or of decency. He advocated self-sufficiency and extreme simplicity in life. In fact, he lived by begging. He proclaimed his brotherhood, not only with the whole human race, but also with animals. On the other hand, he had no patience with the rich and powerful. The story is told of how Alexander the Great visited him and asked if he wanted any favour. “Only to stand out of my light”, he replied. The Sceptics 怀疑学派 （对一切知识持怀疑态度）followed Pyrrho (皮洛 about 360—272B.C.古希腊极端怀疑主义哲学家), who held that not all knowledge was attainable. Hence he and his followers doubted the truth of what others accepted as true. The Epicureans伊壁鸠鲁学派（主张将快乐进行到底）were disciples of Epicurus (伊壁鸠鲁 341-270B.C.古希腊杰出唯物主义和无神论者), who believed pleasure to be the highest good in life, but by pleasure he meant, not sensual enjoyment, but freedom from pain and emotional upheaval. This he thought could be attained by the practice of virtue. His teaching was misunderstood by later people and the word “Epicurean” has come to mean indulgence in luxurious living. Epicurus was a materialist. Following Democritus, he believed that the world consisted of atoms. The Stoics斯多葛派（倡导“克己制欲、顺从天命”） were opposed to the Epicureans. To them, the most important thing in life was not “pleasure”, but “duty”. This developed into the theory that one should endure hardship and misfortune with courage. The chief Stoic was Zeno(齐诺about 335 – 263 B.C. 希腊哲学家, 斯多葛派的创始人)

e. Science

Euclid 欧几里得(约公元前3世纪的古希腊数学家) is even now well-known for his Element《几何原本》, a textbook of geometry, perhaps the most successful textbook ever written, because it was in use in English schools until the early years of the 20th century. Archimedes 阿基米德 (287—212 B.C.) did important work not only in geometry, but also in arithmetic, machanics, and hydrostatics. “Give me a place to stand, and I will move the world.” Greek science did not neglect application. Mathematics, the purest of sciences, was applied in at least five fields: acoustics, optics, geography, statics and astronomy. Greek scientists collected a wealth of material and enquired into the proper method of doing scientific work. As a result, they were able to deduce theories and built up systems, which had a tremendous influence on later scientists.

H. Architecture

a. Art

Greek art is a visual proof of Greek civilization.

b. Architecture

Greek architecture can be grouped into 3 styles (1). the Doric Style ( masculine style ) ---- is sturdy (strong and firm), powerful, severe looking, showing a good sense of proportions and numbers. (2). the Ionic Style (feminine style ) ---- is graceful and elegant (slightly ornamental style) (While the Doric Style is monotonous and unadorned, the Ionic style often shows a wealth of ornament) (3). Corinthian Style ---- is known for its ornamental luxury The famous temples:

Parthenon (447 -- 432 B.C.)--- the most perfect of all the Greek temples, 240 feet long and 110 feet wide, a rectangular structure with evenly spaced lines of columns around

Acrpolis (437 – 432 B.C.)

c. Sculpture

The earliest Greek sculptures were those of Gods. Stiff, lifeless wood carvings. Towards the 7th century B.C., the size of the statues became bigger and life-size. The figures stand very stiff with arms close to their sides, hands clenched or flat against the legs. Narrow waists but broad shoulders and their hair was done in neat and rhythmical rows. Towards the 5th century B.C., change from stiff and mechanical to a period in which the beauty of the internal structure of human bodies and mythological figures are well-observed and brought out. Discus Thrower A good sense of harmony and the balance of opposites Venus de Milo It has been looked upon as a symbol of beauty, grace and health, a personification of vitality and dignity. Laocoon group about 125 B.C. It is known for its successful depiction of the expression of Laocoon‘s face – fear, sympathy and terror.

这是文艺复兴时期文学课件的word版，你们可下载打印出来，然后对照书本再看，这样条理比较清晰。

The Renaissance Period

Historical background:

(1) The Wars of the Roses (1455-1485) and Tudor dynasty which was established by Henry VII in 1485.

(2) Reformation: Protestantism became the official national religion.

(3) The Enclosure movement: compelled peasants to become the hired laborers for the merchants.

(4) Flourishing in the Elizabethan Age: The commercial expansion and the rise of bourgeoisie.

(5) The war with Spain: in 1588, the Spanish Armada was defeated. England had sovereignty over the seas.

Ⅱ. Introduction to Renaissance

English literature in the Renaissance Period is usually regarded as the highlight in this history of English literature. In Elizabethan Period, English literature developed with a great speed and made a magnificent achievement, especially the drama. Thus appeared a group of excellent dramatists. They are John Lyly, Thomas Kyd, George Peele, Robert Greene, Christopher Marlowe, William Shakespeare and Ben Jonson.

Next to the drama is the Lyrical Poetry. In that period, writing poetry became a fashion. England then became "a nest of singing birds". The famous poets of that period were Thomas Wyatt, Henry Howard, Philip Sidney and Edmund Spenser.

There were not so many prose writers. In the beginning period, the great humanist, Thomas More, wrote his famous prose work "Utopia", which may be thought of as the first literary masterpiece of the English Renaissance. In Elizabethan Period, Francis Bacon wrote more than fifty excellent essays, which make him one of the best essayists in English literature.

Poetry in the Renaissance Period

1). Thomas Wyatt(1503-1542)

He is the first to introduce the sonnet into English literature.

2). Philip Sidney (1554-86)

Astrophel and Stella

3). Edmund Spenser (1552 -1599)

Spenser is often referred to as "the poets' poet".

Spenser’s fame in English literature is chiefly based upon his masterpiece The Faerie Queene.

In 1579, he wrote The Shepherd’s Calendar, a pastoral poem in twelve books, one for each month of the year.

Writing Features of “The Faerie Queene”

a. The long poem is written in the form of allegory. It has sweet melody and its lines are very musical.

b. Spenser invented a new verse form for this poem. The verse form has been called "Spenserian Stanza" since his day. Each stanza has nine lines, each of the first eight lines is in iambic pentameter form, and the ninth line is an iambic hexameter line. The rhythm scheme is abab bcbc c.

Prose in the Renaissance Period

1). Thomas More (1477-1535)

Thomas More's Utopia

Utopia is More's masterpiece, written in the form of a conversation between More and a returned sailor. The name "Utopia" comes from two Greek words meaning "no place". The whole work is divided into two books. Book I of "Utopia" is a picture of contemporary social conditions of England. The author severely criticizes English society and exposes social evils. BookⅡoffers us a good picture of an ideal society called Utopia in some unknown ocean. In this society property is held in common and there is no poverty.

2). John Lyly (1553-1606)

A) Euphues

Lyly was one of "the university wits". He wrote poetry, court comedies and prose romances. As a prose writer, he was famous for his prose romance Euphues.

The work Euphues contains two parts. The first is entitled "Euphues or the Anatomy of Wit"; the second part is called "Euphues and His England", a satire on England.

B) Writing Style of Euphues

Euphues was written in a peculiar style known as "Euphuism". This kind of style consists of two distinct elements. The first is abundant use of balanced sentences and words alliterating, riming or identical. The second element is that Lyly decorated his prose with odd similes and comparisons, which were usually drawn from natural history, history and geography.

3). Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

A) Introduction

Francis Bacon was the founder of English materialist philosophy and modern science. Bacon's mind was universal in its comprehensiveness; there was nothing in the world of which he could not write. Alexander Pope called him, “the wisest, brightest, and the meanest of mankind”. During the course of his lifetime he distinguished himself as a scholar in several fields and as a scientist, writer, and philosopher. His practical experience of the world also made him a great lawyer and a considerable statesman.

B) Bacon's Works

Bacon's works may be divided into three groups: the philosophical works; the literary works and the professional works.

Advancement of Learning 《学术的进步》and New Instrument《新工具》were his philosophical works. Bacon's literary works are his essays. The final edition of the Essays 《论说文集》 published in 1625 contained 58 pieces. These essays cover a wide variety of subjects, such as love, truth, friendship, parents and children, beauty, studies, riches, youth and age, garden, death and many others. Among these essays, the famous pieces are Of Studies, Of Travel and Of Wisdom.

C) Writing Style of Bacon's Essays

Bacon's essays are noted for heir clearness, brevity and force of expression. Bacon's chief concern is to express his thought with clearness and in as few words as possible. His sentences are short, pointed, incisive, and often of balanced structure. Many of them have become wise old sayings. Generally Speaking, Bacon's literary style has three prominent qualities: directness, terseness, and forcefulness.

English Drama in the Renaissance Period

1). Shakespeare's Predecessors

A) Lyly, Peele, Kyd, and Marlowe

After 1588, the flourishing period of English drama arrived. The summit was Shakespeare's works. Before Shakespeare, a group of university graduates known as "University Wits" wrote excellent plays. They were John Lyly, Robert Greene, George Peele, Christopher Marlowe, and Thomas Kyd.

B) Christopher Marlowe (1564-1593) was the greatest playwright before Shakespeare and the most gifted of the "University Wits".

Marlowe's best plays include Tamburlaine the Great, The Jew of Malta and Doctor Faustus.

The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus is Marlowe’s masterpiece. The tragedy of Doctor Faustus is symbolic of a humanist in the age of Renaissance.

Marlowe's Literary Achievement

Marlowe was the greatest of the pioneers of English drama. He reformed the English drama and perfected the language and verse of dramatic works. It is Marlowe who first made blank verse (unrhymed iambic pentameter) the principal instrument of English drama. His blank verse is a living thing; it is vigorous, fluid and precise. It translates thoughts and emotions into rhythmical speech with happy exactness, thus interpreting the restlessly moving and questing spirit of the Renaissance. Marlowe's dramatic achievement lies chiefly in his epical and at times lyrical verse. His works paved the way for the plays of the greatest English dramatist – Shakespeare - whose achievements were the monument of the English Renaissance.

2). Shakespeare’s contemporary and successor

Ben Jonson (1572-1637) was a forerunner of classicism in English literature and the Poet Laureate of James I. he is chiefly remembered for his comedies Volpone, or the Fox, The Alchemist.

 Epic: It is, originally, an oral narrative poem, majestic both in theme and style. Epics deal with legendary or historical events of national or universal significance, involving action of broad sweep and grandeur. Typically, an epic includes several features: the introduction of supernatural forces that shape the action; conflict in the form of battles or other physical forces combat; and stylistic conventions such as an invocation to the Muse, and set speeches couched in elevated language. They summarize and express the nature or ideals of an entire nation at a significant or crucial period of its history.  

【背景介绍】

    文艺复兴是欧洲从中世纪向近代过渡期间发生的一场意义深刻，影响深远的思想文化运动，始于14世纪意大利的佛罗伦萨，后迅速席卷德国、法国、西班牙、英国等国，并于16世纪达到高潮。

这一时期的欧洲社会经历了深刻的变化。工商业的发展，王权的巩固，海外的扩张与殖民，地理与科学的新发现，社会生活的世俗化，德、英、法等国先后进行的宗教改革等极大地开阔了人们的眼界，促进了资本主义经济的发展，鼓励人们进一步探索人存在的价值和现实生活的意义。1453年东罗马帝国灭亡，大批学者携带古希腊、罗马作品的手抄本和文物逃往西欧，同时在罗马城废墟中又发掘出许多古罗马雕像，给人们打开了一个与截然不同的古代文化，，掀起了一股研究古典学术，追求新知识的热潮，同时也极大地推动了人文主义运动的开展。因此总的来说，文艺复兴具有三个主要特征：一、古希腊、罗马文化的复兴；二、知识的复兴；三、人文主义运动的发展。

人文主义思想（Humanism）的核心就是强调以“人”为本，宣传个性解放、现世幸福，并积极推进学术，传播科学知识和国家统一新思想，对封建制度、宗教禁欲主义和上层僧侣的腐败虚伪则进行无情的嘲讽与抨击。文艺复兴时期的文学正是以人文主义思想为内容的。意大利诗人但丁、彼特拉克，小说家薄伽丘等人是意大利和欧洲早期人文主义文学的杰出代表，他们在文学领域取得的重大成就为近代欧洲文学的发展开辟了道路。法国文艺复兴运动中涌现出来的拉伯雷（Francois Rabelais,1494?-1553）的小说、七星诗社和蒙田（Michel Eyquem de Montaigne,1533-1592）的散文等极大地丰富了法国及欧洲的人文主义文学。

16世纪后，西班牙、英国的资本主义得到迅速发展，产生了维迦（Lope Felix de Vega Carpio,1562-1635）、塞万提斯（Miguel de Cervantes,1547-1616）、斯宾塞（Edmund Spenser,1552-1599）、马洛（Christopher Marlowe,1564-1593）、莎士比亚（William Shakespeare,1564-1616）等一批杰出的人文主义作家。在西班牙和英国，诗歌、小说、戏剧和散文创作全面繁荣，欧洲文艺复兴文学达到了高峰。

英国人文主义文学是欧洲人文主义文学的顶峰，这可上溯到英国的“诗歌之父”乔叟。他创作的富有浪漫意味的《坎特伯雷故事集》（Canterbury Tales），通过对教会、僧侣的腐败虚伪的批判和对现实美好生活的肯定与追求为后来的文艺复兴运动定下了基调。1485年都铎王朝（Tudor Dynasty,1485-1603）的建立结束了连年内战，统一了王权，重振了英国的政治与经济，恢复了其在欧洲的地位，加强了它与欧洲各国的联系。从亨利七世开始，英国文艺复兴运动得到了迅猛的发展。托马斯莫尔爵士（Thomas More,1478-1535）是这一时期的重要人文主义作家。他创作的《乌托邦》（Utopia,1516）通过一位回到英国的水手之口描绘了一个理想的社会，开了近代欧洲描述空想社会理想著作的先河。这一时期的英国新诗也开始崭露头角。英国最早的新诗作者魏阿特（Sir Thomas Wyatt,1503-1542） 和萨利伯爵（Earl of surrey,henry Howard,1517?-1547）将彼特拉克的诗歌形式引入英国，并用这一行是创作了许多爱情十四行诗，为当时的英国诗坛吹进了一股新鲜的空气。到了伊丽莎白时代，随着英国国家的日以前声，英国的文艺复兴运动达到了高潮。斯宾塞的《仙后》（The Faerie Queene,1590-1596）运用非凡的想象创造出一个瑰丽多姿的世界，也为英国是个创造出一种独特的诗节，即有名的“斯宾塞诗节”（Spenserian Stanza），他的诗歌成就代表着文艺复兴时期英国非戏剧文学的高峰。

除了抒情诗外，英国复兴文学的另一重要形式是喜剧。伊丽莎白时代（The Elizabethan Age）的英国戏剧是英国文艺复兴时期所有文学形式中最辉煌的一种，代表了英国乃至整个欧洲文艺复兴时期文学创作的最高成就。一般以伊丽莎白中期、晚期和莎士比亚后的戏剧为界分为三个时期。伊丽莎白中期的英国戏剧以李利（John Lyly,1554?-1606）、马洛、吉德（Thomas Kyd,1558-1594）、格林（Rober Greene,1558?-1592）等“大学才子”（University Wits）为代表，他们是英国文艺复兴戏剧的先驱，他们的创作表明英国文艺复兴时期的戏剧以趋向成熟，而莎士比亚的戏剧则将英国文艺复兴戏剧推向高峰。莎士比亚以后的剧作家主要有米德顿（Thomas Middleton,1570?-1627）、韦伯斯特（Tohn Webster,1580?-1625?）等人。他们的戏剧作品，如《白魔》（The White Devil,1612）、《玛菲公爵夫人》（The Duchess of Malfi,1623）等由于过多地加入流血与恐怖的场面而大大削弱了剧本所要表现的道德力量，因此被称为“流血悲剧”（Bloody Tragedy）。此外许多迂腐和低级的闹剧是戏剧也纷纷登场。所有这些都表明，在莎士比亚以后，英国的文艺复兴运动已开始走向颓败。

1642年清教革命爆发，同年9月，英国国会两院发布命令，封闭全国的剧院。至此，轰轰烈烈的英国文艺复兴运动终于落下了帷幕。

来自 王佳欣 (122.136.173.46)

I. Rhythm(韵律)

1.syllable: a word or part of a word which contains one vowel sound(元音).

2. Stress: a word or part of a word which should be pronounced with more force.

3. Rhythm:

In English, words of two syllables always contain one that is stressed syllable and one that is unstressed; longer words contain one stressed syllable and two or more unstressed syllables. Unstressed syllables are marked with a curve “︶” and stressed, with a dash “—”.

In a line of poetry, when the stressed and unstressed syllables of all the words are arranged in a definite order, the line will rise and fall in a musical way. And this musical flow, or the rise and fall of language in poetry, is called “rhythm”. E.g. My heart is like a singing bird.

II. foot (音步)

1. Definition: foot is the unit of rhythm and contains two or three syllables, one of which is stressed.

2. 4 kinds of foot:

A. iambus (︶—): consists of one unstressed syllable followed by one stressed syllable.

e.g. Appear, besides , attack , supply.

B. Trochee (—︶): consists of one stressed syllable followed by one unstressed syllable.

e.g. holy,  upper, failing

C. anapaest (︶︶—): consists of two unstressed syllables followed by one stressed syllable.

e.g. reappear, indistinct, incomplete, on the hill

D. dactyl (—︶︶): consists of one stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables. e.g. messenger, merrily, property, accident

III. meter(格律)

   1. The meter of a line of poetry is determined by the kind of foot used and by the number of feet in a line. The longest poetical line contains 8 feet.

    Monometer单音步诗行, dimeter二音步诗行, trimeter三音步诗行, tetrameter四音步诗行, pentameter五音步诗行, hexameter六音步诗行, heptameter七音步诗行, octameter八音步诗行 （八步格）.

    A line of five iambic feet is an iambic pentameter line.

    A line of six dactylic feet is a dactylic hexameter line.

e.g. but every eye was fixed on her alone.

On her white breast a sparkling cross she wore

IV.Rime

     Rime is a repetition of the same sound at the end of two or more lines.

     e.g. day, may; wore, adore.

V. stanza

1. A stanza is a group of two or more consecutive lines bound together by end rime.

2. Usually, we use letters to represent the rime scheme（押韵方式).

    A. couplet: aa  bb  cc…..

    B. terza rima（三行换韵）：aba  bcb  cdc  ded…..

    C. Quatrain(四行诗体): there are 4 rime schemes

1) abcd

Then come home, my children, the sun in gone down

And the dews of night arise.

Come, come, leave off play, and let us away

Till the morning appear in the skies.

2) aaba

       A book of Verses underneath the Bough

       A Jug of Wine, a Loaf of Bread--- and Thou

       Beside me singing in the wilderness----

       Oh, Wilderness were Paradise enow!

3) abab

4) abba

      D. quintette: ababb

      E. sextette: ababcc

      F. septette: ababbcc

      G. octave: abababcc

      H. nonette: ababbcbcc

Heroic Couplet(英雄双韵体）

      1. They are poetry composed in iambic pentameter. In this form of poetry, lines consisting of five iambic feet rime together in pairs.

      2. The rime scheme :aa  bb  cc …..

   poem→stanza→line→foot→syllable

Early and Medieval English Literature (449-1485)

【背景介绍】

    英国中世纪文学史大致可分为盎格鲁-撒克逊（The Anglo-Saxon Period,449-1066）和中古英语（The Middle English Period,1066-1485）两个时期。

    公元前八九世纪高卢（Gaul,今法国）人迁入不列颠岛，成为英国最早的居民。公元1世纪至410年，英伦三岛为罗马人占领。449年开始，北欧日耳曼部族的朱特人（Jutes）、盎格鲁人（Angles）和撒克逊人（Saxons）陆续入侵不列颠。他们的语言——盎格鲁-撒克逊语（Anglo-Saxon）或古英语（Old English）——也开始广为传播。597年，奥古斯丁（ Saint Augustine,?-604）率40余名修士来到英格兰传教，基督教开始在不列颠岛盛行。

盎格鲁-撒克逊时代最重要的文学作品是长达3 000多行的头韵史诗《贝奥武甫》（Beowulf,700-750）,讲述了一个斯堪的纳维亚的民间传说。古英语散文的杰出代表是比德（the Venerable Bede,673-735）的《英吉利人民宗教史》（Ecclesiastical History of the English People,731-732）,其中包括英国第一宗教诗人开德蒙（Caedmon） 充满神奇色彩的生平事迹。该作品用拉丁文写成，后译成英文，是了解早期英国历史的珍贵史料。公元891年，韦塞克斯(Wessex)国王艾尔弗雷德（Alfred，849-901）开始组织修士汇编《盎格鲁-撒克逊编年史》(The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle),后人一直续编至1154年。这是第一部用英语写成的散文巨著，文风简约、质朴，对英国散文的发展产生了深远的影响。

1066年，诺曼底公爵威廉（William,Duke of Normandy）打败英军，夺得王位，成为英国威廉一世（William I）,史称“诺曼征服”（the Norman Conquest）.此后今300年的时间里，法语一直是英国统治阶层的语言，教会学者用拉丁文写作，英语只在民众中通用，以至于在12世纪之前几乎没有用英文写成的文学作品。

然而诺曼征服之后，英国的封建制度得到完善，新的社会等级产生。处于统治阶级最高层的是国王，以下为贵族、骑士、大主教、主教和封臣。处于社会底层的则是农民。骑士是社会的中心人物，据传他们英勇善战又风流倜傥。他们所体现的骑士风度（chivalry）成为当时最主要的文学形式——浪漫传奇（romance）——的基本主题。浪漫传奇是有诗的形式，也有散文的形式，其中最著名的要数讲述亚瑟王及其圆桌骑士（King Arthur and His Knights of the Round Table）冒险经历的故事。在这些故事中描述得最为生动精彩的则数《高文爵士和绿衣骑士》（Sir Gawain and the Green Knight）。1485年托马斯马洛礼（Tomas Malory,?-1471）于1469-1470年间完成的散文传奇《亚瑟王之死》（Le Morte d’Arthur）由威廉卡克斯顿（William Caxton,1421-1491）在英国建立的首家印刷所（1476年建立）印刷出版。该作品文字简朴、节奏优美，不失为这一题材的总结性作品和中世纪最后一部伟大的散文作品。

描写下层人民生活的工作则由威廉朗格兰（William Langland,1330?-1400）完成，他的《农夫皮尔斯之梦》（The Vision of Piers the Plowman）是最伟大的英语诗篇之一，流传下来的三个版本分别于1363年、1371年和1395年写定。在这长达7 000多行的头韵长诗中，作者通过一系列的梦境，对14世纪英国的社会状况进行了生动形象的描述，既表达了对统治阶层的尖锐讽刺，也书法了对穷苦人民悲惨生活的同情。这首诗对1381年约翰保尔（Jone Ball,?-1381） 和瓦特泰勒（Wat Tyler,?-1381）领导的农民起义起到了推波助澜的作用。

对1381年起义产生更大影响的则是约翰威克利夫（Jone Wycliffe,1320-1384）和他的罗拉德派（Lollards）。他们反对、寺院占有土地，驳斥教会的古老教义，为传布新的教义和维护普通百姓的利益而四处奔波。威克利夫对文学的贡献在于他首次组织将《圣经》从拉丁文翻译成英文，并为后人留下了两卷庄重古雅的布道词。

在整个中世纪文学中，成就最大的当首推乔叟（Geoffrey Chaucer,1340?-1400）。他一生经历丰富，与社会各阶层都有广泛的接触，这为他提供了旁人难以获得的创作素材。他一生勤奋好学，精通法文、拉丁文和意大利文，并虚心学习同时代文学大师们的创作方法和思维主题，尤其注意汲取意大利人文主义者的先进思想。乔叟的艺术成就，首先在于他以现实主义的笔触逼真、全面地描绘了当时英国社会的全貌，开创了英国现实主义文学的传统。其次，他的作品，尤其是《坎特伯雷故事集》（The Canterbury Tales,1386-1400）表达了自己的人文主义思想，淋漓尽致地揭露了宗教的腐败、贵族的奢靡生活以及当时社会的其它丑陋现象，同时歌颂了人的智慧、对生活的热爱和对幸福的追求。他是英国人文主义的先驱，是中世纪和英国文艺复兴之间承上启下的人物。再次，他的故事集构思巧妙，叙事方式多样，对18世纪后的英国小说产生了不可估量的作用。最后，乔叟首次把“英国双行体”（heroic couplet）从法国引入英诗，以取代古英语的头韵诗。此外他还是第一位用古英语写作的伟大诗人，为近代英国文学语言奠定了基础。他被卡克斯顿誉为英国的“诗歌之父”。

在乔叟的耀眼光芒之后，15世纪的英国文坛显得黯然失色，值得一提的名家只有马洛礼一人。但这是个通俗文学盛行的时期，涌现了许多优美动人的抒情诗（Lyrics）、民间故事（Folk Tales）和民谣（Ballads）。他们长期以来在民间由游咏诗人口头流传，12世纪后开始被纪录下来，并于15世纪达到极盛。其中最著名的民间故事有《猫头鹰和夜莺》（The Owl and the Nightingale）。民谣则以歌颂绿林好汉罗宾汉的《罗宾汉的事迹》(The Geste of Robin Hood)流传最广。此外以宗教内容为题材的神秘剧（ Mystery Play）和道德剧（Morality Play）也是中世纪的主要文学形式之一。

奥林匹亚神推翻了太坦神的统治。这十二个奥林匹亚神是由于居住在奥林匹亚山上而得名：

希腊名 罗马名 中文名 介绍

Zeus Jupiter 宙斯 宙斯在推翻他父亲的统治之后和他两个兄弟抽签决定如何瓜分这个世界。他抽得了上签成了统治天空的众神之神。他同时还是雨神并负责惩罚那些不守自己誓言的人。宙斯的武器是威力无比的霹雳。他娶了赫拉为妻，但性格极为好色，常背着妻子赫拉与其他女神和凡人私通，私生子无数。

Poseidon Neptune 波塞顿 海神在那次抽签中成为了海洋之王。他的武器是一把能震撼地球的三叉戟。在所有的神中，他的威力仅次于宙斯。尽管他已经娶了撒拉西亚为妻，海神一度对四季之神得墨忒耳非常着迷。在极力讨好她的过程中，海神发誓要创造一种最美丽的动物-马。但是在他不懈努力的过程中，海神创造了许多其他的动物。当他终于成功创造了马的那一天，他对得墨忒耳的热情也已消退。

Hades Pluto 哈帝斯 在那次抽签中，他成为了冥王。冥王是个非常贪婪的神，只是一味追求增加他辖下死人的数量。冥王从不允许任何以在地界的人离开。由于地底藏有无数矿藏，他也是专管财富的神。冥王有一顶神奇的头盔可以使他完全隐形。

尽管冥王是地界之王，但是死神是另有其人。

Hestia Vesta 维斯塔 维斯塔是是宙斯的姐妹。她是个处女女神，掌管火灶。每个城市都有一个祭奉她的公灶。公灶的火是不能熄灭的。

维斯塔在希腊神话中没有扮演什么重要角色。

Hera Juno 赫拉 赫拉是宙斯的姐妹，但是后来嫁给了他成为天后。她从小是由太坦神中的海神和特瑟斯抚养成人的。赫拉是婚姻的保护神，她对已婚妇女特别照顾。但是她自己的婚姻中却充满冲突。

Ares Mars 阿瑞斯 阿瑞斯是宙斯和赫拉的儿子，但是他父母都不太喜欢他。不仅如此，尽管他是战神，阿瑞斯被认为是个胆小鬼。有一次，他和维纳斯偷情被维纳斯的丈夫海珐斯特撞见。此后海珐斯特便不断地在公众场合嘲笑他。阿瑞斯的象征是秃鹰和狗。

Athena Minerva 雅典娜 雅典娜是宙斯最喜欢的女儿。据说她是从宙斯前额蹦出而出世的。宙斯对他这个女儿非常宠信，甚至允许她玩弄自己的霹雳武器。雅典娜战斗是非常勇敢，但是她只帮助抗击外侵之敌。她是掌管城市、手工艺和农业的女神。马勒、喇叭、长笛、壶罐、犁子、耙子、轮船和战车是她的发明。雅典娜也代表智慧、推理和纯洁。她最眷顾的城市是雅典。橄榄树和猫头鹰是她的象征。

Apollo SolPhoebus 阿波罗 阿波罗是宙斯和莉特(LETO)的儿子、月亮和狩神阿尔弥特斯的孪生兄弟。他是掌管音乐、医疗、真言和阳光之神。作为音乐之神，阿波罗非常喜欢用一把金制的小竖琴演奏音乐；作为医疗之神，他教会了人类如何用药；作为真言之神，他不能说一句假话；作为阳光之神和伟大的射手，他擅长用一支银箭射中远处的目标。对阿波罗来说，他每天最重要的一件事是登上他那由四匹战马驱动的战车牵着太阳穿过天空。月桂树、乌鸦和海豚是他大象征。

Aphrodite Venus 维娜斯 维娜斯是掌管爱情、欲望和美丽的女神。她有一根神奇的腰带可以按照她的愿望是任何人对她入迷。关于维娜斯的出生有两种传说。维娜斯嫁给了海珐斯特，但是她有许多情人。桃金娘树、鸽子、天鹅和麻雀是她的象征。

Hermes Mercury 墨丘利 墨丘利是宙斯和美艾的儿子。他是跑得最快的神，因此成为了宙斯的信使。他通常穿着一双带翼的鞋、带着一顶带翼的帽子并拿着一根神奇的魔杖。墨丘利是小偷和商人的神，同时他也负责将死的人领入地府。墨丘利发明了小竖琴、管乐器、音阶、度量衡、拳击和体操。

Artemis Diana 阿尔弥特斯 阿尔弥特斯是宙斯和莉特(LETO)的儿子、阿波罗的孪生姐妹。她是月亮和狩猎之神，同时她也是年轻人的保护神。她是一个处女神，代表着纯洁。尽管如此，阿尔弥特斯也掌管婴儿的出生。这和她的处女神身份很难联系起来，但据说她自己出生时并没有使她母亲感到任何痛苦。和阿波罗一样，阿尔弥特斯也是使用银箭作为她的武器。柏树是她的象征，所有的野生动物都很害怕她，尤其是鹿。

Hephaestus Vulcan 海珐斯特 海珐斯特是宙斯和赫拉的之子，维娜斯的丈夫。他是唯一的长像丑陋的神，而且是个瘸子。据说当他出生后，被扔下了奥林匹亚山，因此留下了终身残疾。海珐斯特是煅造和铸造之神，负责为众神制造武器和盔甲。火山是他的工作时的灶炉。海珐斯特为人和善，热爱和平。

1. Old English Literature（449A.D. ~ 1066）

1）History background：

    The making of the England: Jutes, Angles and Saxons invaded Albion and combined into one United Kingdom-the England.

    Their dialects gradually grew into a single language called Anglo-Saxon, or Old English.

    The transition from tribal society to feudalism

2) Main literature: poetry

3) Main writers: Caedmon, Cynewulf, Venerable Bede and Alfred the Great.

4) Main work:  The Song of Beowulf <<贝奥武甫>>

2. Medieval English Literature (1066-15th century)

1）History background：

    Feudal system was established

    Roman Catholic Church controlled over the country.

2) Main literature: poetry, Romance, Popular ballad

3) Main writers and their works:

    Geoffrey Chaucer 杰弗里·乔叟   The Canterbury Tales 《坎特伯雷故事集》

    William Langland威廉·朗格兰   Piers the Plowman《农夫皮尔斯》

    Thomas Malory 马洛里  The Death of Arthur

     Robin Hood Ballads 《罗宾汉民谣集》

     Sir Gawain and the Green Knight《高文爵士与绿衣骑士》

3. Renaissance English literature (late 15th century ~ early 17th century)

1）History background：

     The establishment of Tudor Dynasty (都铎王朝)(1485~1603)

     Religious Reformation

     The establishment of Protestantism

     Commercial expansion abroad

     The War with Spain

     Movement of Renaissance 

     The thought of humanism arose

2) Main literature: poetry (sonnet and blank verse), drama, essay

3) Main writers and their works:

·Thomas More托马斯·莫尔  Utopia《乌托邦》

·Edmund Spencer 埃德蒙·斯宾塞The shepherd’s Calendar《牧人日历》 The Faerie Queene 《仙后》

·William Shakespeare

·Francis Bacon Essays《随笔集》

·Christopher Marlowe 克里斯托弗·马洛Doctor Faustus《浮士德博士》

·Ben Jonson 本·琼生Volpone《福尔蓬奈》

4. English Literature of the Revolution and Restoration Period (17th century)

1）History background：

     English Revolution (1649)

     The establishment of a Commonwealth

     The monarchy was restored (1660)

     Glorious Revolution(1688)

2) Main literature: poetry, comedy, prose

3) Main writers and their works:

      John Milton 弥尔顿Paradise Lost《失乐园》 Samson Agonistes 《力士参孙》

      John Bunyan班扬  The Pilgrim’s Progress《天路历程》

      John Dryden 德莱顿  Alexander’s Feast《亚历山大的宴会》   The Indian Queen《印第安王后》

      John Donne 多恩 The Elegies and Satires《挽歌与讽刺》

5. 18th century English literature-the age of Enlightenment

1）History background：

     A period of comparatively peaceful development

     Industrial Revolution

     Enlightenment（启蒙运动）

     The struggle of the bourgeoisie against feudalism.

2) Main literature: poetry, drama, fiction

3) Literature trends:

     a) neoclassicism

     b) Realistic novel.

     c) Sentimentalism

     d) Pre-romanticism

4) Main writers and their works:   

        Alexander Pope 亚历山大·蒲柏   The Rape of the Lock《卷发遇劫记》 

        Daniel Defoe 丹尼尔·笛福 Robinson Crusoe 《鲁滨逊漂流记》  Moll Flanders《摩尔·弗兰德斯》    

        Jonathan Swift 乔纳森·斯威夫特 Gulliver’s Travels 《格列佛游记》

        Henry Fielding 菲尔丁 Tom Jones《汤姆·琼斯》

        Thomas Gray托马斯·格雷      Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard《墓园挽歌》

        William Blake 威廉·布莱克  Songs of Innocence《天真之歌》 Songs of Experience《经验之歌》

        Robert Burns 罗伯特·彭斯    A Red, Red Rose《一朵红红的玫瑰》

        Richard Brinsley Sheridan理查德·布林斯利·谢里丹   The School for Scandal《造谣学校》

         The Rivals《情敌》

6. English Critical Realism

1) Historical Background

   ● Queen Victorian (1837-1902)

    ● Chartist Movement

2) Main Literature: poetry; fiction

3) Literature forms:

      a) Chartist literature

      b) Critical realistic novel.

      c) Victorian poetry

4) Charles Dickens & William Makepeace Thackeray

   ●  Their main works and characteristics

7. The Literature of 20th Century

1) Historical background

   ● The decline of the British Empire:

2) Cultural background

   ● New Theories and Ideas: Natural sciences; Social science

3)      Modernism

4)      Early 20th century literature: poetry; dramas

5)      Fiction of the Twentieth Century

6)   Postwar poetry, fiction, drama

古英语和中古英语时期
   古英语时期是指英国国家和英语语言的形成时期。最早的文学形式是诗歌， 以口头形式流传，主要的诗人是吟游诗人。到基督教传入英国之后，一些诗歌才被记录下来。这一时期最重要的文学作品是英国的民族史诗《贝奥武夫》，用头韵体写成.。
   古英语时期(1066?--1500) 从1066年诺曼人征服英国，到1500年前后伦敦方言发展成为公认的现代英语。文学作品主要的形式有骑士传奇、民谣和诗歌。在几组骑士传奇中,有关英国题材的是亚瑟王和他的圆桌骑士的冒险故事，其中《高文爵士和绿衣骑士》代表了骑士传奇的最高成就。中世纪文学中涌现了大量的优秀民谣,最具代表性的是收录在一起的唱咏绿林英雄罗宾汉的民谣。
   3,最重要的诗人是被称为"英国诗歌之父"的乔叟，代表作是《坎特伯雷故事集》，取得了很高的艺术成就.他首创了诗歌的双韵体：每两行压韵的五步抑扬格,后被许多英国诗人采用.。乔叟用伦敦方言写作，奠定了用英语语言进行文学创作的基础，促进了英语语言文学的发展。

文艺复兴时期

   文艺复兴时期的英国文学得到了空前的发展，在诗歌、散文和戏剧方面尤其兴盛。
诗歌方面，新的诗体形式如十四行诗，无韵体诗被介绍到英国.重要的诗人有Philip Sidney，他不仅写了许多优美的十四行诗，还创作了最早的诗歌理论作品之一《诗辩》。Edmund Spenser用斯宾塞诗节创作了著名长诗《仙后》。莎士比亚除了戏剧创作之外也是一位伟大诗人，著有两部叙事诗,两部长诗和154首十四行诗。
英文的《圣经钦定本》作成于1611年,不仅具有重大的宗教意义,也是一部伟大的文学作品,并且对英国的语言文化产生了深远的影响.它的纯朴、平易、明晰的散文风格奠定了英国散文的传统。一个著名的哲学家兼散文家是Francis Bacon，他的文学著作主要有《随笔》，收录了他在各个时期发表的58篇随笔，思想深刻，文笔简洁，富有警句格言。
   戏剧代表文艺复兴时期英国文学的最高成就.主要戏剧家有马洛(Christopher Marlowe)， 莎士比亚(W. Shakespeare)

17世纪的英国文学
   17世纪是英国社会剧烈动荡的时期之一，由于君主专制和资产阶级之间的矛盾，爆发了1642年的内战并导致了1688年的"光荣革命".与政治斗争和资产阶级革命思想紧密相连的是宗教斗争和清教徒思想。因此这一时期的文学和艺术多展示革命思想的发展与成长，并带有浓厚的清教主义倾向。两个代表作家是弥尔顿和班扬.弥尔顿的代表作〈失乐园〉和班扬的代表作《天路历程》都取材于《圣经》。《天路历程》是一部寓言作品，用“基督徒”到达天国的历程象征人类追求美好未来的进程.

18世纪的英国文学
   18世纪产生了一种进步思潮--启蒙运动，这一时期的思想家和作家们崇尚理性,认为启蒙教化是改造社会的基本手段，因此18世纪又被称为“理性的时代”。在文学领域体现为18世纪上半期的新古典主义，代表作家有诗人蒲伯(A. Pope)和期刊随笔的创始人斯梯尔(R.Steele)和艾迪生(J.Addison).
18中期兴起了英国现代小说，出现了大批有影响的小说家.理查逊(Samuel Richardson)的小说《帕美拉》(Pamela)采用书信体形式对人物的心理活动进行细致的描写,大大丰富了小说的创作方法.哥尔德史密斯(Oliver Goldsmith)的《威克菲牧师传》(The Vicar of Wakefield)是英国文学史上著名的感伤小说之一.劳伦斯斯特恩(Laurence Sterne)打破传统的叙事方法，创作了《项迪传》，而被认为是英国现代派文学的先驱。

   迪福(Daniel Defoe)是英国文学史上第一个现实主义小说家，代表作是《鲁滨逊漂流记》。讲述故事情节并分析鲁滨逊这一人物形象。

   斯威夫特是英国文学史上著名的讽刺小说家，以犀利的文笔对教会和社会的虚伪腐败进行了辛辣的讽刺。代表作是《格列佛游记》 
  菲尔丁是英国最杰出的小说家之一，在理论与实践上都为英国小说的发展作出了贡献。在他的代表作《汤姆.琼斯》中，他塑造了众多栩栩如生的人物，展示了错综复杂的社会矛盾.讲述故事情节，分析主题和主要人物形象

19世纪的英国文学
   19世纪英国文学主要包括上半期的浪漫主义时期和中后期的批判现实主义小说。

   布来克和罗伯特.彭斯属于前浪漫主义诗人。布来克的代表作品有《天真之歌》和《经验之歌》.彭斯是著名的苏格兰民族诗人，写了很多脍炙人口的歌颂友谊、爱情、自由、平等的诗歌，其中《一朵红红的玫瑰》广为流传.
浪漫主义全盛时期以华滋华斯与柯律维治联合发表《抒情歌谣集》为开始,到瓦尔特斯各特的逝世为止,主要文学成就为诗歌，涌现了华滋华斯为代表的“湖畔派”诗人和拜伦，雪莱，济慈等富有革命理想,颂扬自由与解放的诗人。

   19世纪中后期的批判现实主义女性小说家及她们的代表作品：Charlotte Bronte，Emily Bronte， Mrs. Gaskell，George Eliot。分析简.爱这一人物形象并分析小说的主题思想。

   托马斯.哈代是19世纪末20世纪初英国最伟大的现实主义小说家，他称自己的作品是“性格与环境的小说”。代表作品是《德伯家的苔丝》。

20世纪的现代派作家
   人们对西方文明的危机感和第二次世界大战的恶果促成了西方现代派文学的形成。主要表现为意识流小说，代表作家有詹姆斯乔伊斯和弗洁尼亚沃尔夫.乔伊斯的小说《尤利西斯》描写的是现代都市居民庸俗，猥琐的精神生活。弗洁尼亚的《到灯塔去》则运用了娴熟的象征手法和意识流技巧。

  就象希腊文明一样，希腊神话也是世界上最古老和神秘的传说之一。这些神话故事是一代又一代欧洲艺术家永恒的创作主题。就象神圣罗马帝国并吞了所有的希腊城邦一样，罗马神话在相当大的程度上整盘托收了希腊神话。（据说罗马人相信所有的神，甚至对敌人的神也顶礼摩拜。当然他们是要敌人的神倒戈来帮助神圣罗马帝国。）事实上，在很多情况下，罗马人只是简单地将希腊神改个名字，就让他们成为了罗马神。因此，在很大程度上，希腊神和罗马神是同人异名而已。

   我相信这些神话故事其实在讲述古希腊人的生活和古希腊社会的风俗。当我在读这些神话故事的时候，我有一种在读古代西蜡历史的感觉：荣耀、权力、私情、阴谋、谋杀、乱伦等等。这些神话故事有些非常动人，但有些读起来并不太令人愉悦。

 太坦神（THE TITAN）是宇宙混沌之后的第一代神。他们有时也被称为老神（THE ELDER GODS）。太坦神一共有十几个，撒腾是他们的首领。他们的统治一直延续到奥林匹亚神将他们推翻为止。当撒腾的儿子宙斯起来反叛的时候，绝大多数太坦神与撒腾并肩战斗，因而在失败之后被宙斯流放到无底深渊中去了。

希腊名 罗马名 中文名 介绍

Gaea    盖亚 她是大地女神。在没有其他神帮助下，她生下了尤瑞那斯。

Uranus Coelus 尤瑞那斯(克洛诺斯) 尤瑞那斯是天空之神，他也是第一个众神之神的统治者。他娶了他的母亲为妻并生下了其他的太坦神。他的统治一直延续到他的儿子撒藤在他母亲的煽动下起来造反并阉割了他为止。据说尤瑞那斯因此受伤而亡。

Cronus Saturn 撒腾 撒腾在推翻他父亲的统治后成为太坦神的领袖。他娶了虞神为妻。由于他时时刻刻记得他父亲的下场，撒腾在虞神为他生下每一个子女之时就将婴儿吞食。

Rhea Cybele 虞神 虞神是撒腾的妻子。由于撒腾将她每一个新生子婴都吞食掉，虞神因此对他丈夫极其不满。当她生下宙斯的时候，虞神耍了一个狸猫换太子的计量，将一块石头交给撒腾因而救下了他的儿子。

Oceanus    阿丝那斯 海神掌管世间奔流不息的水流。他娶了特瑟斯（Tethys）为妻。他俩一起创造了天下的河流和三千个水泽仙女。

Tethys    特瑟斯 她是海神之妻。

Hyperion    亥帕瑞恩 亥帕瑞恩是专管光亮的太坦神，是最早的太阳神。他娶了他的姐妹斯伊亚(THEIA)为妻。

Mnemosyne    尼莫萨恩 尼莫萨恩是专管记忆的太坦神。她是穆斯女神们的母亲。

Themis Justitia 吉斯特西亚 吉斯特西亚是掌管正义和次序的太坦神。她也是命运之神和四季之神的母亲。

Lapetus    拉匹特斯 拉匹特斯是普罗米修斯、艾普米修斯等的父亲。

Coeus    喀伊斯 喀伊斯是专管智慧的太坦神。他是拉托那(LETO/LATONA)的父亲。

Phoebe    菲庇 菲庇是掌管月亮的太坦神。她是拉托那的母亲。

Prometheus    普罗米修斯 普罗米修斯是人类的保护神和恩人。他被认为是最聪明的神。他的名字是“预知未来”的意思。当宙斯和太坦神战斗的时候，普罗米修斯站在了宙斯的一边。

Epimetheus    艾普米修斯 不象他兄弟，艾普米修斯被认为是个很愚蠢的神。他的名字是“后知后觉”的意思。当宙斯让他和普罗米修斯创建人类的时候，他竟接受的潘多拉盒，把邪恶带给了人间。

Atlas    阿泊斯 大力神是普罗米修斯和艾普米修斯的兄弟。但是当宙斯和太坦神战斗的时候，他站在了太坦神的一边。而且由于撒腾已经年老力衰，实际上在那次战斗中太坦神是由他来指挥的。由于这个原因，宙斯在处罚太坦神时给了他特殊的“关照”：让他去把地球背在身上。

Metis    玫提斯 玫提斯是掌管所有的智慧和知识。她被宙斯勾引而怀上了雅典娜。

Dione    戴维 据说她是维那斯的母亲。

来自 李诸庆 (122.136.173.41)

I am very interested english literature.I hope teacher can tell us more interesting stories. I would like to ask about the effect of reading books and watching movies is the same? 

Division One  Greek Culture and Roman Culture

1. Iliad（《伊利亚特》）: 1) It is one of the two great ancient Greek epics by Homer. 2) It deals with the alliance of the states of the southern mainland of Greece, led by Agamemnon in their war against the city of Troy probably in the period 1200-1100 B. C. 3) The heroes are Hector on the Trojan side and Achilles and Odysseus on the Greek. 4) In the final battle, Hector was killed by Achilles and Troy was sacked and burned by the Greeks.

2. Herodotus（希罗多德）: 1) He is one of great ancient Greek historians. 2) He is often called “ Father of History. 3) He wrote about the wars between Greeks and Persians. 4) His history, full of anecdotes and digressions and lively dialogue, is wonderfully readable.5) His object in writing was “ that the great and wonderful deeds done by Greeks and Persians should not lack renown.”

3. Socrates 1) He was the philosopher of ancient Greece in the 5^th and 4^th century. 2) He was considered one of the three greatest names in European philosophy. 3) He hold that philosophy took the aim to reach the conclusion of oneself and virtue was knowledge. 4) His thoughts were recorded in Dialogues by Plato. 5) He devised the dialectical method.

4. Plato: 1) He was the greatest philosopher of ancient Greece, pupil of Socrates. 2) His Dialogues are important not only as philosophical writing but also as imaginative literature. Of the Dialogues he wrote, 27 have survived, including: the Apology, Symposium and the Republic. 3) Plato built up a comprehensive system of philosophy. 4) His philosophy is called idealism.

5. Diogenes（狄奥艮尼）: He was one of the Cynic’s leaders in ancient Greece, who decided to live like a dog. 2) The word “cynic” means “dog” in Greek. 3) He rejected all conventions, advocated self-sufficiency and extreme simplicity in life.

6. Stoics（斯多咯派）: 1) It was one of four ancient Greek schools of philosophers in the 4^th century B. C. 2) To them , the most important thing in life was “duty”. 3) It developed into the theory that one should endure hardship and misfortune with courage. 4) The chief Stoic was Zeno.

7. Virgil（维吉尔）: 1) He was the greatest of Latin poets. 2) He wrote the great epic, the Aeneid. 3) The poem opened out to the future, for Aeneas stood at the head of a rce of people who were to found the first the Roman republic and then the Roman Empire.

What is literature?

   Literature refers to the practice and profession of writing. It comes from human interest in telling a story, in arranging words in artistic forms, in describing in words some aspects of human experiences.

   Literature is characterized by beauty of expression and form and by university of intellectual and emotional appeal.

   Literature shows us not only what a society is like in a certain age, but also what individual feel about it, what they hope from it, and how they can change it or escape from it.

Why we read literature?

a. Read for pleasure: Howells observed that the study of literature should begin and end in pleasure.

b. Reading for relaxation: Modern life is full of pressure. It is people’s common desire to seek temporally relaxation from the stress in life.

c. Reading to acquire knowledge: literature gives readers an insight into the tradition, custom, beliefs, attitudes, folklore, values of the age in which it is written.

How to study literature?

a. Analytical approach: the elements of fiction include plot, character, setting, point of view, theme, symbol, allegory, style, and tone.

b. Thematic approach: what is the story, the poem, the play, or the essay about?

c. Historical approach: It aims at illustrating the historical development of literature. All the literature exists in time and as such bears the unmistakable imprint of the period and culture in which it is written.

d. Other approaches: Marxist/ sociological criticism; psychoanalytical criticism; feminist/gender criticism; mythic and archetypal criticism; reader-response criticism; formalist/new criticism; structuralism;

e.  Other approaches (2): post-structuralism; deconstructuralism; other textbook is arranged in chronological order, but we deal with each period analytically with emphasis on theme.

A history of English literature

http://mecheld.blogbus.com/files/12514580470.doc

希望上来拷资料或是阅读资料的同学留言，这也算是平时成绩的一部分。

有任何问题或是建议可在这里提出来。